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Jacob and Joshua: Nemesis Rising

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Jacob and Joshua: Nemesis Rising
J&jtitle.png
Title card

Format
Reality
Starring
Jacob Miller
 Joshua Miller
Opening theme
Rise Up
Country of origin
United States
Original language(s)
English
No. of episodes
7
Production

Executive producer(s)
Mark C. Grove
Jeff Keirns
Garry Kief
Troy P. Queen
Running time
22 minutes
Broadcast

Original channel
Logo
Original run
October 16 – December 4, 2006
External links
Website
Jacob and Joshua: Nemesis Rising is a reality television program originating on the LGBT network Logo. It follows identical twin brothers Jacob and Joshua Miller, who together comprise the pop duo Nemesis, as they seek success in the music business as openly gay artists. The series premiered on October 16, 2006.
The series is available for download at the iTunes Store, along with a clip show retrospective entitled The Music of Jacob and Joshua: Nemesis Rising. It is currently airing in Canada on OUTtv.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Episode summaries 1.1 Episode 1: Meet the Twins
1.2 Episode 2: Coming Out in Montana
1.3 Episode 3: Montana and Relationships
1.4 Episode 4: Nashville
1.5 Episode 5: Media Blitz
1.6 Episode 6: Barry and Vegas
1.7 Episode 7: HRC, TRL, and Beyond
1.8 Episode 8
2 External links

Episode summaries[edit source]
Episode 1: Meet the Twins[edit source]
In the debut episode, Jacob and Joshua, Nemesis, are introduced. Jacob is the blond and Joshua is the brunette. They have been under contract to Curb Records for several years but have not progressed beyond the point of recording demo tracks. The boys live together in Los Angeles along with Jacob's boyfriend Nick. Joshua is single, and while Jacob and Nick are fairly domestic, Joshua actively tries to meet men on the internet and at West Hollywood gay clubs The Abbey and iCandy (itself the subject of an earlier Logo reality series, Open Bar).
Nemesis has a meeting the next morning with their manager, Garry Kief. Garry tells the boys that Curb is conditionally ready to commit to producing a single, album and appearances for them. Curb plans to mention in any marketing material that Jacob and Joshua are gay. Jacob is ready to come out to anyone and everyone, including his Jehovah's Witness parents. Joshua is much more reluctant. The boys argue about how being known as gay could negatively affect them both professionally and personally. Ultimately they decide to go home to Montana although Joshua says he may still not be able to tell them he's gay.
Episode 2: Coming Out in Montana[edit source]
Joshua continues to stress over coming out to his parents, while Jacob invites Nick to go to Montana with them. They plan to have Nick come up toward the end of the visit. Joshua thinks bringing Nick is a bad idea.
The twins fly to Montana and their mother Sherry picks them up at the airport. Back at the house they meet up with brother Jordan and sister Sarah calls home. Dad Rex gets home as well.
As Jacob and Joshua get acquainted with the family's new horses and socialize with the family, Sherry, Rex and the twins interview about being Jehovah's Witnesses. The twins, who've left the religion, note that homosexuality is considered a sin and Joshua especially stresses over the secret he's carrying.
Over a family dinner on the porch, Jacob comes out to their parents on behalf of the two of them. Jordan and Sarah already knew. Sherry and Rex are hard-hit by the news. Sherry and Rex talk about their reactions interspersed with scenes of them telling the boys that they still love them. Sherry interviews that she believes the Bible tells her the God hates homosexuality and that homosexuals won't "inherit the kingdom." Rex interviews that his sons' homosexuality isn't "anything [he] wish[es] to see" and nothing he wants to embrace. He says he still loves them and he will embrace them and not judge them, but that he won't allow it to be part of his and Sherry's "arrangement" because of how they believe. Sherry notes that she thinks Joshua has an "agenda."
Joshua tells Jacob that he thought their parents' reaction was "freaky good" and that things went just as he had hoped. Jacob expresses his relief that for the first time he can set "the gay issue" aside, but interviews that Nick is coming and he hopes his parents can meet him.
Episode 3: Montana and Relationships[edit source]
Jacob, Joshua and their family continue to come to terms with the twins' announcement. The twins and Rex do some fly fishing and talk about Rex and Sherry's marriage. Jacob tells Rex that he has always looked to his parents as relationship role models.
Ultimately Jacob decides against having Nick come to Montana. To make up for it, Jacob (who says he's not good at making romantic gestures) makes plans to celebrate their sixth anniversary. He takes Nick sky diving and for a romantic dinner in Laguna Beach. He gives Nick a ring that he knows Nick likes, interviewing that it's not intended as a wedding or "promise" ring. He tells Nick that he's concerned that when Nemesis' career takes off over the next several months, Nick might feel like Jacob is "slipping away" from him. Nick reassures him and they interview separately that they believe their relationship will endure.
Meanwhile, Joshua does some work in the recording studio and cruises the internet to "shop for dudes."
Episode 4: Nashville[edit source]
After meeting with manager Garry (and discussing Lance Bass and the possible impact his coming out might have on their own careers) the twins fly to Nashville, Tennessee to meet with Curb Records founder Mike Curb and prepare for a showcase performance. Nick, whose family lives in Nashville, goes with them and Jacob and Joshua visit with his family. Jacob interviews about how tight-knit Nick's family is, how welcomed he has felt by them throughout his relationship with Nick and how he wishes he could bring Nick similarly into his family.
Nemesis meets with Curb, who listens to their cover of Hot Child in the City and is pleased. Joshua gets together with his ex-boyfriend Daniel, whom he describes as his "first love."
As they prepare for the showcase, Jacob is nervous that no one will show up. Joshua struggles with stage fright. In the end the show is packed and the twins' performance of Hot Child is well received.
Episode 5: Media Blitz[edit source]
At a lunch meeting with Garry, the twins learn that The Advocate magazine has agreed to feature them on the cover. Joshua again has some anxiety over the gay issue but Jacob is thrilled at the prospect of being on a magazine cover. Nick is equally thrilled for them but Joshua seeks out friend Meredith as a sounding board. She encourages him to embrace the upcoming attention and be proud of being a "pioneer." They call home and tell Mom the news.
At Garry's office, he announces to the twins that Mike Curb has approved the song Number One in Heaven as the first single from their album and has committed to a video shoot the following week. The video will be directed by a husband-and-wife team named Nick and Laura, known as "Honey," who've directed videos for Stevie Nicks, Rage Against the Machine, Dave Navarro and others. Nemesis meets Honey to discuss the concept. Joshua has reservations but Jacob likes it. The twins hire a personal trainer to get in shape for the video.
Nemesis travels to Palm Springs to shoot the album cover. For a change, Jacob is nervous because he doesn't think he photographs well in stills. But, once the photos are taken Joshua is back to worrying about them and Jacob is pleased.
Back in Los Angeles the twins meet with publicist Howard Bragman, who tells them they've lost the Advocate cover but that there will still be a big story. Joshua is relieved but Jacob is annoyed.
It's the day of the video shoot. After a slow start for Joshua they arrive at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, site of the shoot. It goes well and Jacob especially is pleased, however, he grows more worried about the possibility of failure after all the effort they've already made.
Episode 6: Barry and Vegas[edit source]
Nemesis is excited to learn that Barry Manilow wants to produce a track for the upcoming album. Barry wants to produce He Was a Friend of Mine (which had previously appeared on the soundtrack of Brokeback Mountain performed by Willie Nelson). The twins will fly to Las Vegas next week. Their enthusiasm is dampened, however, upon hearing the demo recording, feeling that it doesn't fit the album. They meet with manager Garry but are still concerned.
Jacob and Joshua fly to Las Vegas. After checking into a luxury suite they go out to a club called Pirhana. Jacob works the club for a while as Joshua hangs back, then when Jacob leaves Joshua starts mingling and mixing.
The next day at the suite, the twins work on the song. Joshua, who will be singing lead, interviews that Jacob's earlier tirade against the song influenced him against it but after having listened to it a few more times he began feeling it would work. They clash over Joshua's level of preparedness, which leads to an uncomfortable dinner. After dinner they meet producer Michael Lloyd at The Palms Casino's Ghost Bar and talk out their concerns with him.
The following morning Jacob and Joshua head to the recording studio and meet Barry. They record the track and Barry shares some stories from his early career. After hearing a rough mix of the track, the twins' fears about the song are assuaged. Jacob, Joshua and Barry all express their satisfaction.
Episode 7: HRC, TRL, and Beyond[edit source]
In the season finale, Jacob decides to move out of the apartment he shares with Joshua and Nick. Up in the air is whether Joshua will be moving with him to a new place.
Manager Garry calls in the twins to announce that they have been invited to perform at the Human Rights Campaign annual dinner. Some 3,000 "movers and shakers" will hear them perform. Later over coffee Jacob and Joshua talk about the work that's left to do on the album and about preparing for the HRC performance.
Nemesis flies to Washington, D.C. to meet with HRC president Joe Solmonese. They discuss the role of HRC in the gay community. Later the twins, Nick and Garry head to the convention center to check out the performance space and meet with stage manager Sasha Bamadji. They rehearse and Jacob interviews that he's concerned his voice might not hold up for the performance.
At the HRC dinner Nemesis has a photo op with Solmonese and are excited to meet Billie Jean King. Introduced by the cast of Noah's Arc, the twins perform Rise Up to a very warm reception.
Back in Los Angeles, Jacob and Joshua again meet with Garry and express their concerns over when the album will be released. Those concerns are put aside when Garry informs them they will be appearing on MTV's Total Request Live. Garry interviews that TRL is "this generation's American Bandstand" and the best way to gain mainstream exposure for the act.
MTV VJ Vanessa Minnillo interviews the boys for TRL and they talk about the video shoot for Number One in Heaven. After the appearance, the twins wrap up the season by interviewing about their experiences and all the people who have taken chances for them. They talk about the chances they have taken and how they plan to continue moving forward.
Episode 8[edit source]
An eighth episode, released online, consists of clips of the previous episodes and interview segments with the twins about their experiences with the show, ending with another airing of their music video.
External links[edit source]
Official website
Jacob and Joshua: Nemesis Rising at the Internet Movie Database
 

Categories: American reality television series
2006 American television series debuts
2006 American television series endings
Logo original programs

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Nemesis (duo)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

  (Redirected from Nemesis (musicians))
Jump to: navigation, search

For other uses, see Nemesis (disambiguation).

Nemesis

Origin
United States
Genres
Pop
Years active
2001–present
Labels
Curb Records
Nemesis is an pop music duo consisting of the identical twin brothers Jacob and Joshua Miller. The pair can be differentiated by their hair colors; Jacob is blond, while Joshua's hair is brown. Joshua is also a few minutes older than Jacob. They were raised as Jehovah's Witnesses in Kalispell, Montana but have since left the religion. They were disfellowshipped after publicly stating they had left the religion.[1]
The journey of the duo can be seen on the Logo television network reality series entitled Jacob and Joshua: Nemesis Rising. The show premiered on October 16, 2006.[2]
Nemesis has been signed with Curb Records since 2001. The duo released the EP Let Me Help You Out in 2005. Number One in Heaven, the first single from the album Rise Up, was released in September 2006 and was quickly followed by Rise Up in October to coincide with the premiere of the reality show. The music video for Number One in Heaven could be seen on the Click List Music program of Logo. It also aired on MTV Hits, which, like Logo, is owned by MTV Networks.
Discography[edit]
Let Me Help You Out (EP) - 2005
Rise Up - 2006
References[edit]
1.^ Garcia, Michelle (16 January 2007), "Joshua Miller loses his religion", The Advocate, retrieved 19 February 2012
2.^ Arvin, Eric (October 16, 2006). Gay Twins Search for Stardom in "Nemesis Rising"
External links[edit]
Jacob Miller at the Internet Movie Database
Joshua Miller at the Internet Movie Database


Stub icon This article on a United States-based pop music group is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Categories: Musical groups established in 2001
American pop music groups
LGBT-themed musical groups
Participants in American reality television series
Sibling musical duos
Musical groups from Montana
United States pop musical group stubs


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Joshua Miller loses his religion

Shunned by their former religion, Nemesis Rising's gay twin brothers Jacob and Joshua Miller are looking for answers.
BY Michelle Garcia.
January 16 2007 1:00 AM ET

.
   

   .


Jacob and Joshua Miller of the pop rock band
 Nemesis Rising defied their Jehovah’s Witness
 past by coming out together on national
 television. Unfortunately, their risky yet entertaining
 venture caused the Witnesses to disfellowship, or
 excommunicate, the duo in late December. Joshua,
 the “free spirit,” elaborated about his ordeal.
Coming out on national TV was risky, knowing that
 the Jehovah’s Witnesses would not be very
 accepting. Why did you do it?
 We knew that they wouldn't be accepting going
 into it. I had already decided I wasn't a
 Jehovah’s Witness, and that at some point you either
 have to step up or shut up. I wasn't that concerned about
 that because I knew the repercussions of coming out
 and the possible repercussions with my family.…
It wasn't that I was worried in that way, but I was worried
 as far as the music industry, and making sure that Jacob and
 I would be able to find an audience that would be
 willing to listen to our music even though they saw
 that we were gay.
How did you hear about the Jehovah’s
 Witnesses’ decision to disfellowship you
 and Jacob?
 One of the oddest parts was that we didn't have
 any discussion or communication with them, which is
 procedurally very unusual. I was born and raised as a
 Jehovah’s Witness my whole life until I was about 24
 years old, when I decided it wasn't for me. It just was
 an announcement that was made, without contacting
 Jacob or me, even though they had access to us, as
 some of the elder body are family of mine. So I
 thought that was strange.
A girl friend of
 mine wrote me a text message that said, “I’m
 really upset right now. I can't believe you didn't
 warn me that they were disfellowshipping you
 tonight.” And my stomach just dropped. So I wrote
 her back and said, “They’re not. Nobody said
 anything to me. That’s not happening.”
And then she called—she was crying—and said
 that they just announced it, and she ran out upset
 when it happened.
Have your family or friends reached out to you
 despite you being disfellowshipped?
 Nobody in any official capacity has called,
 which I still find unusual. My parents were on
 vacation when it happened. During their cruise,
 several people came up to them and thanked them for doing
 such a great job on the television series [Jacob
 and Joshua: Nemesis Rising on Logo] and
 maintaining such composure, and for being such cool
 parents. They were surprised by that because they're not
 used to people recognizing them.
But then they
 arrived home, and all of this had gone down without them
 knowing, so I think they were upset. It all happened so
 quickly while they were out of town. I haven't spoken
 to my dad at all, which I do find a little bit
 strange. I have talked to my mom twice. The first time was a
 very emotional conversation. She was upset and trying to
 figure out how all of this could happen without anyone
 being around. It’s one of those weird things
 for her, Dad, Sarah, and Jordan. They’re lucky
 because there’s the little loophole for
 immediate family—they can have only very
 limited contact with us, but at least they can speak to us.
 Like yesterday, my mom said a piece of mail she had
 sent me was returned, so that was an excuse to call.
But it’s
 very hard on them. As far as my other friends go, I haven't
 spoken to any one of them on the telephone. The one girl who
 called and told me what had happened said she was
 getting pressure—crazy pressure—but she
 was going to try to maintain the relationship with us.
Looking forward, is there anything that you might
 do to help others who may be in your position?
 I’ve gotten so many e-mails, letters, and
 MySpace messages from people of all ages who admire us
 and want to share their stories. It’s actually
 overwhelming. I’m still trying to wrap my head around
 the impact we're able to have. I’d like to find
 something a little more organized to be a part of that
 may be helpful to others. I’m lucky to have Jacob,
 who is my identical twin brother, and not to be
 completely alone, but I think most people in this
 situation are alone. Also, Jacob and I live in West
 Hollywood [Calif.], which is a support structure in and of
 itself. Many people don't have that. If my story
 helps, and I hope it does, I definitely want to reach
 out to more people as soon as I figure out how to do
 it.

















Dwight D. Eisenhower

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"Eisenhower" redirects here. For other people with the surname, see Eisenhower (name).

Dwight D. Eisenhower
Dwight D. Eisenhower, official photo portrait, May 29, 1959.jpg
Eisenhower in 1959
34th President of the United States
In office
 January 20, 1953 – January 20, 1961
Vice President
Richard Nixon
Preceded by
Harry S. Truman
Succeeded by
John F. Kennedy
1st Supreme Allied Commander Europe
In office
 April 2, 1951 – May 30, 1952
President
Harry S. Truman
Deputy
Arthur Tedder
Preceded by
Position established
Succeeded by
Matthew Ridgway
16th Chief of Staff of the Army
In office
 November 19, 1945 – February 6, 1948
President
Harry S. Truman
Deputy
J. Lawton Collins
Preceded by
George Marshall
Succeeded by
Omar Bradley
1st Governor of the American Zone of Occupied Germany
In office
 May 8, 1945 – November 10, 1945
President
Harry S. Truman
Preceded by
Position established
Succeeded by
Joseph T. McNarney
13th President of Columbia University
In office
 1948–1953
Preceded by
Nicholas Murray Butler
Succeeded by
Grayson Kirk
Personal details

Born
David Dwight Eisenhower
October 14, 1890
Denison, Texas, U.S.
Died
March 28, 1969 (aged 78)
Walter Reed General Hospital
Washington, D.C., U.S.
Resting place
Eisenhower Presidential Center
Abilene, Kansas, U.S.
Political party
Republican
Spouse(s)
Mamie Geneva Doud
Children
Doud Eisenhower
John Eisenhower
Alma mater
U.S. Military Academy
Profession
Army officer
Religion
Presbyterianism
Signature
Cursive signature in ink
Military service

Service/branch
 United States Army
Years of service
1915–1953
 1961–1969[1]
Rank
US-O11 insignia.svg General of the Army
Battles/wars
World War II
Awards
Army Distinguished Service Medal (5)
Navy Distinguished Service Medal
Legion of Merit
Order of the Southern Cross
Order of the Bath
Order of Merit
Legion of Honor
See more
Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (pronounced /ˈaɪzənhaʊər/, EYE-zən-how-ər; October 14, 1890 – March 28, 1969) was the 34th President of the United States from 1953 until 1961. He had previously been a five-star general in the United States Army during World War II and served as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe; he had responsibility for planning and supervising the invasion of North Africa in Operation Torch in 1942–43 and the successful invasion of France and Germany in 1944–45 from the Western Front. In 1951, he became the first supreme commander of NATO.[2]
Eisenhower was of Pennsylvania Dutch ancestry and was raised in a large family in Kansas by parents with a strong religious background. He attended and graduated from West Point and later married and had two sons. After World War II, Eisenhower served as Army Chief of Staff under President Harry S. Truman, then assumed the post of President at Columbia University.[3]
Eisenhower entered the 1952 presidential race as a Republican to counter the non-interventionism of Senator Robert A. Taft and to crusade against "Communism, Korea and corruption". He won by a landslide, defeating Democrat Adlai Stevenson and ending two decades of the New Deal Coalition. In the first year of his presidency, Eisenhower deposed the leader of Iran in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état and used nuclear threats to conclude the Korean War with China. His New Look policy of nuclear deterrence gave priority to inexpensive nuclear weapons while reducing the funding for conventional military forces; the goal was to keep pressure on the Soviet Union and reduce federal deficits. In 1954, Eisenhower first articulated the domino theory in his description of the threat presented by the spread of communism. The Congress agreed to his request in 1955 for the Formosa Resolution, which enabled him to prevent Chinese communist aggression against Chinese nationalists and established the U.S. policy of defending Taiwan. When the Soviets launched Sputnik in 1957, he had to play catch-up in the space race. Eisenhower forced Israel, the UK, and France to end their invasion of Egypt during the Suez Crisis of 1956. In 1958, he sent 15,000 U.S. troops to Lebanon to prevent the pro-Western government from falling to a Nasser-inspired revolution. Near the end of his term, his efforts to set up a summit meeting with the Soviets collapsed because of the U-2 incident.[4]
On the domestic front, he covertly opposed Joseph McCarthy and contributed to the end of McCarthyism by openly invoking the modern expanded version of executive privilege. He otherwise left most political activity to his Vice President, Richard Nixon. He was a moderate conservative who continued New Deal agencies and expanded Social Security.
Among his enduring innovations, he launched the Interstate Highway System; the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which led to the internet, among many invaluable outputs; the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), driving peaceful discovery in space; the establishment of strong science education via the National Defense Education Act; and encouraging peaceful use of nuclear power via amendments to the Atomic Energy Act.[5]
In social policy, he sent federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas, for the first time since Reconstruction to enforce federal court orders to desegregate public schools. He also signed civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 to protect the right to vote. He implemented desegregation of the armed forces in two years and made five appointments to the Supreme Court. He was the first term-limited president in accordance with the 22nd Amendment. Eisenhower's two terms were peaceful ones for the most part and saw considerable economic prosperity except for a sharp recession in 1958–59. Eisenhower is often ranked highly among the U.S. presidents.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Early life and education
2 Personal life
3 Early military career 3.1 World War I
3.2 In service of generals
4 World War II 4.1 Operations Torch and Avalanche
4.2 Supreme Allied commander and Operation Overlord
4.3 Liberation of France and victory in Europe
5 Post World War II 5.1 Military Governor in Germany and Army Chief of Staff
5.2 President at Columbia University and NATO Supreme Commander
5.3 Presidential campaign of 1952
6 Presidency 1953–1961 6.1 Interstate Highway System
6.2 Foreign policy 6.2.1 Space race
6.2.2 Korean War, China, and Taiwan
6.2.3 Mideast and Eisenhower doctrine
6.2.4 Southeast Asia
6.2.5 1960 U-2 incident
6.3 Civil rights
6.4 Relations with Congress
6.5 Judicial appointments 6.5.1 Supreme Court
6.5.2 Other courts
6.6 States admitted to the Union
6.7 Health issues
6.8 End of presidency 1960–1961
7 Retirement, death and funeral
8 Legacy and memory
9 Tributes and memorials
10 Awards and decorations
11 Other honors
12 See also
13 References
14 Further reading 14.1 General biographies
14.2 Military career
14.3 Civilian career
14.4 Historiography and interpretations by scholars
14.5 Primary sources
15 External links 15.1 Audio and video
15.2 For additional research
15.3 Organizations

Early life and education[edit source]



 Eisenhower family home, Abilene, Kansas
The Eisenhauer (German for "iron hewer/miner") family migrated from Karlsbrunn, Germany, to Switzerland in the 17th century due to religious persecution, and a century later came to the United States. The Eisenhower family settled in York, Pennsylvania, in 1730, and in the 1880s they moved to Kansas.[6] Accounts vary as to how and when the German name Eisenhauer was changed to a more American spelling of Eisenhower.[7] Eisenhower's Pennsylvania Dutch ancestors, who were primarily farmers, included Hans Nikolaus Eisenhauer of Karlsbrunn, who migrated to Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1741.[8] Hans' great-great grandson, David Jacob Eisenhower (1863–1942), was Dwight's father, and was a college-educated engineer, despite his own father Jacob's urging to stay on the family farm. Eisenhower's mother, Ida Elizabeth Stover, born in Virginia of German Lutheran ancestry, moved to Kansas from Virginia. She married David on September 23, 1885, in Lecompton, Kansas, on the campus of their alma mater, Lane University. David owned a general store in Hope, Kansas, but the business failed due to economic conditions and the family became impoverished. The Eisenhowers then lived in Texas from 1889 until 1892, and later returned to Kansas, with $24 to their name at the time; David worked as a mechanic with a railroad and then with a creamery.[9] By 1898, the family was self-sustaining with suitable accommodations for their large family.[10]
Eisenhower was born on October 14, 1890, in Denison, Texas, the third of seven boys.[11] His mother originally named him David Dwight but reversed the two names after his birth to avoid the confusion of having two Davids in the family.[12] All of the boys were called "Ike", such as "Big Ike" (Edgar) and "Little Ike" (Dwight); the nickname was intended as an abbreviation of their last name.[13] By World War II, only Dwight was still called "Ike".[6] In 1892, the family moved to Abilene, Kansas, which Eisenhower considered as his home town.[6] As a child, he was involved in an accident that cost his younger brother an eye; he later referred to this as an experience teaching him the need to be protective of those under him. Dwight developed a keen and enduring interest in exploring outdoors, hunting/fishing, cooking and card playing from an illiterate named Bob Davis who camped on the Smoky Hill River.[14][15][16] And though his mother was against war, it was her collection of history books that first sparked Eisenhower's early and lasting interest in military history. He persisted in reading the books in her collection and became a voracious reader in the subject. Other favorite subjects early in his education were arithmetic and spelling.[17]
His parents set aside specific times at breakfast and at dinner for daily family Bible reading. Chores were regularly assigned and rotated among all the children, and misbehavior was met with unequivocal discipline, usually from David.[18] His mother, previously a member (with David) of the River Brethren sect of the Mennonites, joined the International Bible Students Association, which later became Jehovah's Witnesses. The Eisenhower home served as the local meeting hall from 1896 to 1915, though Eisenhower never joined the International Bible Students.[19] His later decision to attend West Point saddened his mother, who felt that warfare was "rather wicked," but she did not overrule him.[20] While speaking of himself in 1948, Eisenhower said he was "one of the most deeply religious men I know" though unattached to any "sect or organization". He was baptized in the Presbyterian Church in 1953.[21]
Eisenhower attended Abilene High School and graduated with the class of 1909.[22] As a freshman, he injured his knee and developed a leg infection which extended into his groin and which his doctor diagnosed as life threatening; the doctor insisted that the leg be amputated but Dwight refused to allow it, and miraculously recovered, though he had to repeat his freshman year.[23] He and brother Edgar both wanted to attend college, though they lacked the funds. They made a pact to take alternate years at college while the other worked, in order to earn the tuitions.[24] Edgar took the first turn at school, and Dwight was employed as a night supervisor at the Belle Springs Creamery.[25] Edgar asked for a second year, Dwight consented and worked for a second year. At that time, a friend "Swede" Hazlet was applying to the Naval Academy and urged Dwight to apply to the school, since no tuition was required. Eisenhower requested consideration for either Annapolis or West Point with his U.S. Senator, Joseph L. Bristow. Though Eisenhower was among the winners of the entrance-exam competition, he was beyond the age limit for the Naval Academy.[26] He then accepted an appointment to West Point in 1911.[26]



 Eisenhower (2nd from left) and Omar Bradley (2nd from right) were members of the 1912 West Point football team.
At West Point, Eisenhower relished the emphasis on traditions and on sports, but was less enthusiastic about the hazing, though he willingly accepted it as a plebe; he was also a regular violator of the more detailed regulations, and finished school with a less than stellar discipline rating. Academically, Eisenhower's best subject by far was English; otherwise his performance was average, though he thoroughly enjoyed the typical emphasis of engineering on science and mathematics.[27] In athletics, Eisenhower later said that "not making the baseball team at West Point was one of the greatest disappointments of my life, maybe my greatest."[28] He did make the football team, and was a varsity starter as running back and linebacker in 1912, tackling the legendary Jim Thorpe of the Carlisle Indians that year.[29] Eisenhower suffered a torn knee in that, his last, game; he re-injured his knee on horseback and in the boxing ring,[6][14][30] so he turned to fencing and gymnastics.[6] Eisenhower later served as junior varsity football coach and cheerleader. Controversy persists over whether Eisenhower played minor league baseball for Junction City in the Central Kansas League the year before he attended West Point, where he played amateur football.[31][32] He graduated in the middle of the class of 1915,[33] which became known as "the class the stars fell on", because 59 members eventually became general officers.
Personal life[edit source]



Mamie Eisenhower
Eisenhower met and fell in love with Mamie Geneva Doud of Boone, Iowa, six years his junior, while he was stationed in Texas.[6] He and her family were also immediately taken with one another. He proposed to her on Valentine's Day in 1916.[34] A November wedding date in Denver was moved up to July 1 due to the pending US entry into World War I. In their first 35 years of marriage, they moved many times.[35]
The Eisenhowers had two sons. Doud Dwight "Icky" Eisenhower was born September 24, 1917, and died of scarlet fever on January 2, 1921, at the age of three;[36] Eisenhower was mostly reticent to discuss his death.[37] Their second son, John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower, was born on August 3, 1922, while they were in Panama; John served in the United States Army, retired as a brigadier general, became an author and served as U.S. Ambassador to Belgium from 1969 to 1971. John, coincidentally, graduated from West Point on D-Day, June 6, 1944. He married Barbara Jean Thompson on June 10, 1947. John and Barbara had four children: Dwight David II "David", Barbara Ann, Susan Elaine and Mary Jean. David, after whom Camp David is named,[38] married Richard Nixon's daughter Julie in 1968.
Eisenhower was a golf enthusiast later in life, and joined the Augusta National Golf Club in 1948.[39] He played golf frequently during and after his presidency and was unreserved in expressing his passion for the game, to the point of golfing during winter, and ordered his golf balls painted black so he could see them better against snow on the ground. He had a small, basic golf facility installed at Camp David, and became close friends with the Augusta National Chairman Clifford Roberts, inviting Roberts to stay at the White House on several occasions; Roberts, an investment broker, also handled the Eisenhower family's investments. Roberts also advised Eisenhower on tax aspects of publishing his memoirs, which proved to be financially lucrative.[39]
After golf, oil painting was Eisenhower's second hobby.[37] While at Columbia, Eisenhower began the art after watching Thomas E. Stephens paint Mamie's portrait. He painted about 260 oils during the last 20 years of his life to relax, mostly landscapes but also portraits of subjects such as Mamie, their grandchildren, General Montgomery, George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln.[40] Wendy Beckett stated that Eisenhower's work, "simple and earnest, rather cause us to wonder at the hidden depths of this reticent president". A conservative in both art and politics, he in a 1962 speech denounced modern art as "a piece of canvas that looks like a broken-down Tin Lizzie, loaded with paint, has been driven over it."[37]
Early military career[edit source]
See also: Military career of Dwight D. Eisenhower
World War I[edit source]
After graduation in 1915, Lieutenant (2nd) Eisenhower put in for assignment in the Philippines which was denied, and served with the infantry, initially in supplies, until 1918 at various camps in Texas and Georgia. In 1916, while stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Eisenhower was football coach for St. Louis College, now St. Mary's University.[41] In late 1917 while in charge of training at Ft. Oglethorpe in Georgia, Mamie had their first son.
When the US entered World War I he immediately requested an overseas assignment but was again denied and then assigned to Ft. Leavenworth, Kansas.[42] In February 1918 he was transferred to Camp Meade in Maryland with the 65th Engineers. His unit was later ordered to France but to his chagrin he received orders for the new tank corps, where he rose to temporary (Bvt.) Lieutenant Colonel in the National Army.[43] He trained tank crews at "Camp Colt"—his first command—at the site of "Pickett's Charge" on the Gettysburg, Pennsylvania Civil War battleground. Though Ike and his tank crews never saw combat, he displayed excellent organizational skills, as well as an ability to accurately assess junior officers' strengths and make optimal placements of personnel.[44] Once again his spirits were raised when the unit under his command received orders overseas to France; this time his wishes were thwarted when the armistice was signed, just a week before departure.[45] Completely missing out on the warfront left him depressed and bitter for a time, despite being given the Distinguished Service Medal for his work at home. In World War II rivals who had combat service in the first great war (led by Gen. Bernard Montgomery) sought to denigrate Eisenhower for his previous lack of combat duty, despite his stateside experience establishing a camp, completely equipped, for thousands of troops, and developing a full combat training schedule.[46]
In service of generals[edit source]



 Eisenhower, far right, with three unidentified friends, in 1919 four years after graduating from West Point.
After the war, Eisenhower reverted to his regular rank of captain and a few days later was promoted to major, a rank he held for 16 years.[8] The major was assigned in 1919 to a transcontinental Army convoy to test vehicles and dramatize the need for improved roads in the nation. Indeed, the convoy averaged only 5 mph from Washington, D.C. to San Francisco; later the improvement of highways became a signature issue for Eisenhower as President.[47] He assumed duties again at Camp Meade, Maryland, commanding a battalion of tanks, where he remained until 1922. His schooling continued, focused on the nature of the next war and the role of the tank in it. His new expertise in tank warfare was strengthened by a close collaboration with George S. Patton, Sereno E. Brett, and other senior tank leaders; their leading-edge ideas of speed-oriented offensive tank warfare were strongly discouraged by superiors who considered the new approach too radical and preferred the tank continue to be used in a strictly supportive role for the infantry. Eisenhower was even threatened with court martial for continued publication of these proposed methods of tank deployment, and he relented.[48][49]
From 1920, Eisenhower served with an unprecedented succession of generals – Fox Conner, John J. Pershing, Douglas MacArthur and George Marshall. He first became executive officer to General Conner in the Panama Canal Zone, where, joined by Mamie, he served until 1924. Under Conner's tutelage, he studied military history and theory (including Carl von Clausewitz's On War), and later cited Conner's enormous influence on his military thinking, saying in 1962 that "Fox Conner was the ablest man I ever knew." Conner's comment on Ike was, "[he] is one of the most capable, efficient and loyal officers I have ever met."[50] On Conner's recommendation, in 1925–26 he attended the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he graduated first in a class of 245 officers.[51][52] He then served as a battalion commander at Fort Benning, Georgia, until 1927.
During the late 1920s and early 1930s, Eisenhower's career in the post war army stalled somewhat, as military priorities diminished; many of his friends resigned for high-paying business jobs. He was assigned to the American Battle Monuments Commission directed by General Pershing, and with the help of his brother Milton Eisenhower, then a journalist at the Agriculture Dept., he produced a guide to American battlefields in Europe. He then was assigned to the Army War College and graduated in 1928. After a one year assignment in France, Eisenhower served as executive officer to General George V. Mosely, Assistant Secretary of War, from 1929 to February 1933.[53] His primary duty was planning for the next war which proved most difficult in the midst of the great depression.[54] He then was posted as chief military aide to General MacArthur, Army Chief of Staff. In 1932, he participated in the clearing of the Bonus March encampment in Washington DC. Although he was against the actions taken against the veterans and strongly advised MacArthur against taking a public role in it, he later wrote the Army's official incident report, endorsing MacArthur's conduct.[55][56]
In 1935, he accompanied MacArthur to the Philippines, where he served as assistant military adviser to the Philippine government in developing their army. Eisenhower had strong philosophical disagreements with his patron regarding the role of the Philippine Army and the leadership qualities that an American army officer should exhibit and develop in his subordinates. The dispute and resulting antipathy lasted the rest of their lives.[57] Historians have concluded that this assignment provided valuable preparation for handling the challenging personalities of Winston Churchill, George S. Patton, George Marshall and General Montgomery during World War II. Eisenhower later emphasized that too much had been made of the disagreements with MacArthur, and that a positive relationship endured.[58] While in Manila Mamie suffered a life threatening stomach ailment but recovered fully. Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of permanent lieutenant colonel in 1936. He also learned to fly, although he was never rated as a military pilot. He made a solo flight over the Philippines in 1937.
Eisenhower returned to the U.S. in 1939 and held a series of staff positions in Washington, D.C., California and Texas. In June 1941, he was appointed Chief of Staff to General Walter Krueger, Commander of the 3rd Army, at Fort Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas. After successfully participating in the Louisiana Maneuvers, he was promoted to brigadier general on October 3, 1941.[59][60] Although his administrative abilities had been noticed, on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II he had never held an active command above a battalion and was far from being considered by many as a potential commander of major operations.
World War II[edit source]
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Eisenhower was assigned to the General Staff in Washington, where he served until June 1942 with responsibility for creating the major war plans to defeat Japan and Germany. He was appointed Deputy Chief in charge of Pacific Defenses under the Chief of War Plans Division (WPD), General Leonard T. Gerow, and then succeeded Gerow as Chief of the War Plans Division. Then he was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff in charge of the new Operations Division (which replaced WPD) under Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, who spotted talent and promoted accordingly.[61]
At the end of May 1942, Eisenhower accompanied Lt. Gen. Henry H. Arnold, commanding general of the Army Air Forces, to London to assess the effectiveness of the theater commander in England, Maj. Gen. James E. Chaney. He returned to Washington on June 3 with a pessimistic assessment, stating he had an "uneasy feeling" about Chaney and his staff. On June 23, 1942, he returned to London as Commanding General, European Theater of Operations (ETOUSA), based in London,[62] and replaced Chaney.[63]
Operations Torch and Avalanche[edit source]



 General Eisenhower.
In November 1942, he was also appointed Supreme Commander Allied (Expeditionary) Force of the North African Theater of Operations (NATOUSA) through the new operational Headquarters A(E)FHQ. The word "expeditionary" was dropped soon after his appointment for security reasons. The campaign in North Africa was designated Operation Torch and was planned underground within the Rock of Gibraltar. Eisenhower was the first non British person to command Gibraltar for 200 years.[64]
French cooperation was deemed necessary to the campaign, and Eisenhower encountered a "preposterous situation' with the multiple rival factions in France. His primary objective was to move forces successfully onto Tunisia, and intending to facilitate that objective, he gave his support to François Darlan as High Commissioner in North Africa, despite Darlan's previous high offices of state in Vichy France and his continued role as Commander in Chief of French armed forces. The Allied leaders were "thunderstruck" by this from a political standpoint, though none of them had offered Eisenhower guidance with the problem in the course of planning the operation. Eisenhower was severely criticized for the move. Darlan was assassinated later that year by Fernand Bonnier de La Chapelle. Eisenhower did not take action to prevent the arrest and extrajudicial execution of Bonnier de La Chapelle by associates of Darlan acting without authority from either Vichy or the Allies, considering it a criminal rather than a military matter.[65] Eisenhower later appointed General Henri Giraud as High Commissioner, who had been installed by the Allies as Darlan's commander in chief, and who had refused to postpone the execution.[66]
Operation Torch also served as a valuable training ground for Eisenhower's combat command skills; during the initial phase of Erwin Rommel's move into the Kasserine Pass, Eisenhower created some confusion in the ranks by some interference with the execution of battle plans by his subordinates. He also was initially indecisive in his removal of Lloyd Fredendall. He became more adroit in such matters in later campaigns.[67] In February 1943, his authority was extended as commander of AFHQ across the Mediterranean basin to include the British 8th Army, commanded by General Bernard Law Montgomery. The 8th Army had advanced across the Western Desert from the east and was ready for the start of the Tunisia Campaign. Eisenhower gained his fourth star and gave up command of ETOUSA to be commander of NATOUSA.
After the capitulation of Axis forces in North Africa Eisenhower oversaw the highly successful invasion of Sicily. Once Mussolini had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche. But while Eisenhower argued with Roosevelt and Churchill, who both insisted on unconditional terms of surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country – making the job more difficult, by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering the Allied forces 2 to 1, Nevertheless, the invasion of Italy was highly successful.[68]
Supreme Allied commander and Operation Overlord[edit source]



 Eisenhower with U.S. paratroopers of the 502d Parachute Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division on June 5, 1944
In December 1943, President Roosevelt decided that Eisenhower—not Marshall—would be Supreme Allied Commander in Europe. The following month, he resumed command of ETOUSA and the following month was officially designated as the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), serving in a dual role until the end of hostilities in Europe in May 1945.[69] He was charged in these positions with planning and carrying out the Allied assault on the coast of Normandy in June 1944 under the code name Operation Overlord, the liberation of Western Europe and the invasion of Germany.



 From left, front row includes army officers Simpson, Patton, Spaatz, Eisenhower, Bradley, Hodges and Gerow in 1945
Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skill sets had all strengthened in preparation for the next most difficult campaign against the Germans – a beach landing assault. His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with de Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert and sabotage operations against the Germans in advance of Overlord.[70] Admiral Ernest J. King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from the Pacific.[71] He also insisted that the British give him exclusive command over all strategic air forces to facilitate Overlord, to the point of threatening to resign unless Churchill relented, as he did.[72] Eisenhower then designed a bombing plan in France in advance of Overlord and argued with Churchill over the latter's concern with civilian casualties; de Gaulle interjected that the casualties were justified in shedding the yoke of the Germans, and Eisenhower prevailed.[73] He also had to skillfully manage to retain the services of the often unruly George S. Patton, by severely reprimanding him, when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy.[74]
The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, 1944 were costly but successful; a month later the invasion of Southern France took place, and control of the forces which took part in the southern invasion passed from the AFHQ to the SHAEF. Many prematurely considered that victory in Europe would come by summer's end; however Eisenhower knew from his German roots that the fight would continue. From then until the end of the war in Europe on May 8, 1945, Eisenhower through SHAEF had command of all Allied forces, and through his command of ETOUSA, administrative command of all U.S. forces, on the Western Front north of the Alps. He was ever mindful of the inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced on an individual level by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of personally visiting every division involved in the invasion.[75] Ike's sense of responsibility was underscored by his draft of a statement to be issued if the invasion failed; it has been called one of the great speeches of history:

Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.[76]
Liberation of France and victory in Europe[edit source]



 Eisenhower and the Allied Commanders at Rheims Surrender
Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy, and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Gen. Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group's attack being made in the north, while Gens. Bradley (U.S. 12th Army Group) and Devers (U.S. Sixth Army Group) insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front. Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical, though sometimes ineffective, latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late 1944, and victory became a more distinct probability.[77]
In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, 1944 he was promoted to General of the Army, equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He interacted adeptly with allies such as Winston Churchill, Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery and General Charles de Gaulle. He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them. He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov, his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends.[78]
The Germans launched a surprise counter offensive in the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944 which was turned back in early 1945 by the Allies after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Air Force to engage.[79] German defenses continued to deteriorate on both the eastern front with the Soviets and the western front with the Allies. The British wanted Berlin but Eisenhower decided it would be a military mistake for him to attack Berlin, and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit. The British backed down, but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow. The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviets, along with the Polish, captured Berlin in a very large-scale bloody battle, and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, 1945.[80]
Post World War II[edit source]
Military Governor in Germany and Army Chief of Staff[edit source]



 General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower, Chief of Staff of the United States Army by Nicodemus David Hufford III.
Following the German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed Military Governor of the U.S. Occupation Zone, based in Frankfurt am Main. He had no responsibility for the other three zones, controlled by Britain, France and the Soviet Union. Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps, he ordered camera crews to document evidence of the atrocities in them for use in the Nuremberg Trials. He reclassified German prisoners of war (POWs) in U.S. custody as Disarmed Enemy Forces (DEFs). Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) in directive JCS 1067, but softened them by bringing in 400,000 tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization.[81][82][83] In response to the devastation in Germany, including food shortages and an influx of refugees, he arranged distribution of American food and medical equipment.[84] His actions reflected the new American attitudes of the German people as Nazi victims not villains, while aggressively purging the ex-Nazis.[85][86]
In November 1945, Eisenhower returned to Washington to replace Marshall as Chief of Staff of the Army. His main role was rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, a slow job that was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower suffered from a respiratory infection in December 1945 which prevented him from receiving the Order of the Elephant in person from King Christian X of Denmark.[87] Eisenhower was convinced in 1946 that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs. However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets Truman was guided by the U.S. State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon. By mid-1947, as East-West tensions over economic recovery in Germany and the Greek Civil War escalated, Eisenhower gave up his hopes for cooperation with the Soviets and agreed with a containment policy to stop Soviet expansion.[88]
As the 1948 election approached, Eisenhower was repeatedly urged by prominent citizens from both parties nationwide to run for president. President Truman even approached him, offering to serve as his Vice-President if he would agree to run as president on the Democratic ticket. Eisenhower maintained no political party affiliation during this time, though he was clear in not aligning with the Democrats. He firmly declined all the offers and many believed he was foregoing his only opportunity to be president; Thomas E. Dewey was considered the other probable winner, would presumably serve two terms, and Eisenhower, at age 66 in 1956, would then be too old.[89]
President at Columbia University and NATO Supreme Commander[edit source]



 The Supreme Commanders on June 5, 1945 in Berlin: Bernard Montgomery, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Georgy Zhukov and Jean de Lattre de Tassigny.
In 1948, Eisenhower became President of Columbia University, a premier private university in New York. The assignment was described as not being a good fit in either direction.[90] During that year Eisenhower's memoir, Crusade in Europe, was published.[91] Critics regarded it as one of the finest U.S. military memoirs, and it was a major financial success as well. Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by an unprecedented ruling by the U.S. Department of the Treasury that Eisenhower was not a professional writer, but rather, marketing the lifetime asset of his experiences, and thus he only had to pay capital gains tax on his $635,000 advance instead of the much higher personal tax rate. This ruling saved Eisenhower about $400,000.[92]
Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia University was punctuated by his activity within the Council on Foreign Relations, a study group he led as president concerning the political and military implications of the Marshall Plan, and The American Assembly, Eisenhower's "vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature". His biographer Blanche Weisen Cook suggested that this period served as "the political education of General Eisenhower", since he had to prioritize wide-ranging educational, administrative, and financial demands for the university. Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which would become the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy. "Whatever General Eisenhower knows about economics, he has learned at the study group meetings," one Aid to Europe member claimed.
Eisenhower accepted the presidency of the university to expand his ability to promote "the American form of democracy" through education. He was clear on this point to the trustees involved in the search committee. He informed them that his main purpose was "to promote the basic concepts of education in a democracy." As a result he was "almost incessantly" devoted to the idea of the American Assembly, a concept which he developed into an institution by the end of 1950.
Within months of beginning his tenure as the president of the university, Eisenhower was requested to advise U.S. Secretary of Defense James Forrestal on the unification of the armed services. About six months after his appointment, he became the informal Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington. Two months later he fell ill, and he spent over a month in recovery at the Augusta National Golf Club. He returned to his post in New York in mid-May, and in July 1949 took a two-month vacation out-of-state. Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during mid-to-late 1950, building financial support from Columbia Associates, an alumni association.
Eisenhower was unknowingly building resentment and a reputation among the Columbia University faculty and staff as an absentee president who was using the university for his own interests. As a career military man, he naturally had little in common with the academics.[93]
The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fund-raising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency. Meanwhile, Columbia University's liberal faculty members became disenchanted with the university president's ties to oilmen and businessmen, including Leonard McCollum, the president of Continental Oil; Frank Abrams, the chairman of Standard Oil of New Jersey; Bob Kleberg, the president of the King Ranch; H. J. Porter, a Texas oil executive; Bob Woodruff, the president of the Coca-Cola Corporation; and Clarence Francis, the chairman of General Foods chairman.
As the president of Columbia, Eisenhower gave voice and form to his opinions about the supremacy and difficulties of American democracy. His tenure marked his transformation from military to civilian leadership. His biographer Travis Beal Jacobs also suggested that the alienation of the Columbia faculty contributed to sharp intellectual criticism of him for many years.[94]
The trustees of Columbia University refused to accept Eisenhower's resignation in December 1950, when he took an extended leave from the university to become the Supreme Commander of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), and he was given operational command of NATO forces in Europe. Eisenhower retired from active service as an Army general on May 31, 1952, and he resumed his presidency of Columbia. He held this position until January 20, 1953, when he became the President of the United States.
NATO did not have strong bipartisan support in Congress at the time that Eisenhower assumed its military command. Eisenhower advised the participating European nations that it would be incumbent upon them to demonstrate their own commitment of troops and equipment to the NATO force before such would come from the war-weary United States.
At home, Eisenhower was more effective in making the case for NATO in Congress than the Truman administration was. By the middle of 1951, American and European support for NATO was substantial enough to give it a genuine military power. Nevertheless, Eisenhower thought that NATO would become a truly European alliance, with the American and Canadian commitments ending after about ten years.[95]
Presidential campaign of 1952[edit source]
Main article: United States presidential election, 1952



 "I Like Ike" button from the 1952 campaign
President Truman, symbolizing a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, again in 1951 pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat. It was at this time that Eisenhower voiced his disdain for the Democratic party and declared himself and his family to be Republicans.[96] A "Draft Eisenhower" movement in the Republican Party persuaded him to declare his candidacy in the 1952 presidential election to counter the candidacy of non-interventionist Senator Robert Taft. The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty for him to offer himself as a candidate, and that there was a mandate from the populace for him to be their President. Henry Cabot Lodge, who served as his campaign manager, and others succeeded in convincing him, and in June 1952 he resigned his command at NATO to campaign full-time.[97] Eisenhower defeated Taft for the nomination, having won critical delegate votes from Texas. Eisenhower's campaign was noted for the simple but effective slogan, "I Like Ike". It was essential to his success that Ike express his opposition to Roosevelt's policy at Yalta and against Truman's policies in Korea and China, matters in which he had once participated.[98][99] In defeating Taft for the nomination, it became necessary for Eisenhower to appease the right wing Old Guard of the Republican Party; his selection of Richard M. Nixon as the Vice-President on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose. Nixon also provided a strong anti-communist presence as well as some youth to counter Ike's more advanced age.[100]



 1952 electoral vote results
In the general election, against the advice of his advisors, Eisenhower insisted on campaigning in the South, refusing to surrender the region to the Democrats. The campaign strategy, dubbed "K1C2", was to focus on attacking the Truman and Roosevelt administrations on three issues: Korea, Communism and corruption. In an effort to accommodate the right, he stressed that the liberation of Eastern Europe should be by peaceful means only; he also distanced himself from his former boss President Truman. Two controversies arose during the campaign which tested him and his staff but were without effect on the campaign; one involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust – Nixon spoke out adroitly to avoid potential damage but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates. The second issue centered around Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of Joseph McCarthy on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance.[101] Just two weeks prior to the election, Eisenhower vowed to go to Korea and end the war there. He promised to maintain a strong commitment against Communism while avoiding the topic of NATO; finally, he stressed a corruption-free, frugal administration at home. He defeated Democrat Adlai Stevenson in a landslide, with an electoral margin of 442 to 89, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years.[99] In the election he also brought with him a Republican majority in the House (by eight votes) and in the Senate (actually a tie, with Nixon providing the majority vote).[102]
Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and at age 62, was the oldest man to be elected President since James Buchanan in 1856. (President Truman stood at 64 in 1948 as the incumbent president at the time of his election four years earlier.)[103] Eisenhower was the only general to serve as President in the 20th century, and the most recent President to have never held elected office prior to the Presidency. (The other Presidents who did not have prior elected office were Zachary Taylor, Ulysses S. Grant, William Howard Taft and Herbert Hoover.)
Presidency 1953–1961[edit source]
Main article: Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower
Due to a complete estrangement between the two as a result of campaigning, Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations.[104] After selecting his budget director, Joseph M. Dodge, Eisenhower asked Herbert Brownell and Lucius Clay to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments. He accepted their recommendations without exception; they included John Foster Dulles and George M. Humphrey with whom he developed his closest relationships, and one woman, Oveta Culp Hobby. Eisenhower's cabinet, consisting of several corporate executives and one labor leader, was dubbed by one journalist, "Eight millionaires and a plumber."[105] The cabinet was notable for its lack of personal friends, office seekers, or experienced government administrators. He also upgraded the role of the National Security Council in planning all phases of the Cold War.[106]
Prior to his inauguration, he led a meeting of advisors at Pearl Harbor addressing foremost issues; agreed objectives were to balance the budget during his term, to bring the Korean War to an end, to defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and to end price and wage controls.[107] Eisenhower also conducted the first pre-inaugural cabinet meeting in history in late 1952; he used this meeting to articulate his anti-communist Russia policy. His inaugural address as well was exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the U. N.[108]
Eisenhower made greater use of press conferences than any prior president, holding almost 200 in his two terms. While he saw a positive relationship with the press as invaluable, his primary objective in press conferences was to maintain an indispensable direct contact with the people.[109]
Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism.[110] He continued all the major New Deal programs still in operation, especially Social Security. He expanded its programs and rolled them into a new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. He implemented integration in the Armed Services in two years, which had not been completed under Truman.[111]
As the 1954 congressional elections approached, and it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses, Eisenhower was among those blaming the Old Guard for the losses, and took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP. Ike then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: "I have just one purpose ... and that is to build up a strong progressive Republican Party in this country. If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it ... before I end up, either this Republican Party will reflect progressivism or I won't be with them anymore."[112]
Initially Eisenhower planned on serving only one term, but as with other decisions he maintained a position of maximum flexibility in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again. During his recovery from a heart attack late in 1955, he huddled with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group, in addition to his doctor, concluded a second term was well advised, and he announced in February 1956 he would run again.[113][114] Ike was publicly noncommittal about Nixon's repeating as the Vice President on his ticket; the question was an especially important one in light of his heart condition. He personally favored Robert Anderson, a Democrat, who rejected his offer; Eisenhower then resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party.[115] In 1956, Eisenhower faced Adlai Stevenson again and won by an even larger landslide, with 457 of 531 electoral votes and 57.6% of the popular vote. The level of campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations.[116]
Eisenhower valued the brief respites and the amenities of an office which he endowed with an arduous daily schedule. He made full use of his valet, chauffeur and secretarial support – he rarely drove or dialed a phone number. He was an avid fisherman, golfer, painter and bridge player, and preferred active rather than passive forms of entertainment.[117] On August 26, 1959, Ike was aboard the maiden flight of Air Force One, which replaced the previous Presidential aircraft, the Columbine.[118]
Interstate Highway System[edit source]
Main article: Interstate Highway System



Remarks in Cadillac Square, Detroit




President Eisenhower delivered remarks about the need for a new highway program at Cadillac Square in Detroit on October 29, 1954
Text of speech excerpt
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One of Eisenhower's enduring achievements was championing and signing the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in 1956.[119] He justified the project through the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 as essential to American security during the Cold War. It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence the highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers.
Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by difficulties encountered during his involvement in the U.S. Army's 1919 Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U.S. Army vehicles coast to coast.[120][121] His subsequent experience with German autobahns during World War II convinced him of the benefits of an Interstate Highway System. Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.S. would not only be beneficial for military operations, but provide a measure of continued economic growth.[122] The legislation initially stalled in the Congress over the issuance of bonds to finance the project, but the legislative effort was renewed and the law was signed by Ike in June 1956.[123]
Foreign policy[edit source]
In 1953, the Republican's Old Guard presented Eisenhower with a dilemma by insisting he disavow the Yalta Agreements as beyond the constitutional authority of the Executive Branch; however, the death of Joseph Stalin in March 1953 made the matter a practical moot point.[124] At this time Eisenhower gave his Chance for Peace speech in which he attempted, unsuccessfully, to forestall the nuclear arms race with the Soviet Union by suggesting multiple opportunities presented by peaceful uses of nuclear materials. Biographer Stephen Ambrose opined that this was the best speech of Eisenhower's presidency.[125][126] Nevertheless, the Cold War escalated during his presidency. When Russia successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, Eisenhower, against the advice of Dulles, decided to initiate a disarmament proposal to the Russians. In an attempt to make their refusal more difficult, he proposed that both sides agree to dedicate fissionable material away from weapons toward peaceful uses, such as power generation; this approach was labeled "Atoms for Peace".[127]
The U.N. speech was well received but the Russians never acted upon it, due to an overarching concern for the greater stockpiles of nuclear weapons in the U.S. arsenal. Indeed, Eisenhower embarked upon a greater reliance on the use of nuclear weapons, while reducing conventional forces, and with them the overall defense budget. This approach became known as the "New Look", and was initiated with defense cuts in late 1953.[128] In 1955 American nuclear arms policy became one aimed primarily at arms control as opposed to disarmament. The failure of negotiations over arms until 1955 was due mainly to the refusal of the Russians to permit any sort of inspections. In talks located in London that year, they expressed a willingness to discuss inspections; the tables were then turned on Eisenhower, when he responded with an unwillingness on the part of the U.S. to permit inspections. In May of that year the Russians agreed to sign a treaty giving independence to Austria, and paved the way for a Geneva summit with the U.S., U.K. and France.[129] At the Geneva Conference Eisenhower presented a proposal called "Open Skies" to facilitate disarmament, which included plans for Russia and the U.S. to provide mutual access to each other's skies for open surveillance of military infrastructure. Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev dismissed the proposal out of hand.[130]
In 1954, Ike articulated the domino theory in his outlook towards communism in Southeast Asia and also in Central America; he believed that if the communists were allowed to prevail in Vietnam, this would cause a succession of countries to fall to communism, from Laos through Malaysia and Indonesia ultimately to India. Likewise, the fall of Guatemala would end with the fall of neighboring Mexico.[131] That year the loss of North Vietnam to the communists and the rejection of his proposed European Defense Community (EDC) were serious defeats, but he remained optimistic in his opposition to the spread of communism, saying "Long faces don't win wars".[132] As he had threatened the French in their rejection of EDC, he afterwards moved to restore Germany, as a full NATO partner.[133]
With Eisenhower's leadership and Dulles' direction, CIA activities increased, to resist the spread of communism in poorer countries;[134] the CIA in part deposed the leaders of Iran in Operation Ajax, of Guatemala through Operation Pbsuccess, and possibly the newly independent Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville).[135] In 1954 Ike wanted to increase surveillance inside the Soviet Union. With Dulles' recommendation, he authorized the deployment of thirty Lockheed U-2's at a cost of $35 million.[136] The Eisenhower administration also planned the Bay of Pigs Invasion to overthrow Fidel Castro in Cuba, which John F. Kennedy was left to carry out."[137]
Space race[edit source]
On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957, gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world. He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. He rushed construction of more advanced satellites, created NASA as a civilian space agency, signed a landmark science education law, and fostered improved relations with American scientists.[138]
In strategic terms, it was Eisenhower who devised the American basic strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of B-52 bombers, land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).[139]
Korean War, China, and Taiwan[edit source]



Korean War
In late 1952, Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate. Once in office, when the Chinese began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he threatened to use nuclear force if an armistice were not concluded. His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese.[140] The National Security Council, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and the Strategic Air Command (SAC) devised detailed plans for nuclear war against China.[141] With the death of Stalin in early March 1953, Russian support for a Chinese hard-line weakened and China decided to compromise on the prisoner issue. In July 1953, an armistice took effect with Korea divided along approximately the same boundary as in 1950. The armistice and boundary remain in effect today, with American soldiers stationed there to guarantee it. The armistice, concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President Syngman Rhee, and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration; Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable.[142]
A point of emphasis in Ike's campaign had been his endorsement of a policy of liberation from communism as opposed to a policy of containment. This continued to be his preference despite the armistice with Korea,[143] Throughout his terms Eisenhower took a hard-line attitude toward China, as demanded by conservative Republicans, with the goal of driving a wedge between China and the Soviet Union.[144] He continued Truman's policy of recognizing the Republic of China (based in Formosa/Taiwan) as the legitimate government of China, not the Beijing regime. There were localized flare-ups when the Red Army began shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu in September 1954. Ike received recommendations embracing every variation of response to the aggression of the Chinese communists. He thought it essential to have every possible option available to him as the crisis unfolded. The Sino-American Mutual Defense Treaty with Taiwan was signed in December 1954. He requested and secured from Congress their "Formosa Resolution" in January 1955 which gave Eisenhower the unprecedented power in advance to use military force at any level of his choosing in defense of Formoso and the Pescadores. The Resolution bolstered the morale of the Chinese nationalists, and signaled to Beijing that the U.S. was committed to holding the line.[145] Eisenhower openly threatened the Chinese with use of nuclear weapons, authorizing a series of bomb tests labeled Operation Teapot; nevertheless, he left the Chinese communists guessing as to the exact nature of his nuclear response. This allowed Eisenhower to accomplish all of his objectives – the end of this communist aggression, the retention of the Islands by the Chinese nationalists and continued peace.[146] Defense of Taiwan from an invasion remains a core American policy.[147]
By the end of 1954 Eisenhower's military and foreign policy experts – the NSC, JCS and State Dept. – had unanimously urged him, on no less than five occasions, to launch an atomic attack against China; yet he consistently refused to do so and felt a distinct sense of accomplishment in having sufficiently confronted communism while keeping world peace.[148]
Mideast and Eisenhower doctrine[edit source]



 Eisenhower with the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran
Even before he was inaugurated Eisenhower accepted a request from the British government to restore the Shah to power. He therefore authorized the Central Intelligence Agency to help the Iranian army overthrow Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh.[149] This resulted in an increased strategic control over Iranian oil by U.S. and British companies.[150]
In November 1956, Eisenhower forced an end to the combined British, French and Israeli invasion of Egypt in response to the Suez Crisis. Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of Hungary in response to the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. Therefore he publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations, and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt.[151] Controversy surrounds Harold Macmillan's secret meeting with Eisenhower on September 25, 1956, after which Macmillan relayed to Prime Minister Anthony Eden that Eisenhower promised to support an invasion.[152][153] In 1965 Eisenhower explicitly defended his strong position against Israel, Britain and France in his memoirs.[154]



 Eisenhower and Vice President Richard Nixon with their host, King Saud of Saudi Arabia, Washington 1957
After the Suez Crisis the United States became the protector of unstable friendly governments in the Middle East via the "Eisenhower Doctrine". Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held the U.S. would be "prepared to use armed force ... [to counter] aggression from any country controlled by international communism". Further, the United States would provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East.[155]
Eisenhower applied the doctrine in 1957–58 by dispensing economic aid to shore up the Kingdom of Jordan, and by encouraging Syria's neighbors to consider military operations against it. More dramatically, in July 1958, he sent 15,000 Marines and soldiers to Lebanon as part of Operation Blue Bat, a non-combat peace-keeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government and to prevent a radical revolution from sweeping over that country. The mission proved a success and the Marines departed three months later. The deployment came in response to the urgent request of Lebanese president Camille Chamoun after sectarian violence had erupted in the country. Washington considered the military intervention successful since it brought about regional stability, weakened Soviet influence, and intimidated the Egyptian and Syrian governments, whose anti-West political position had hardened after the Suez Crisis.[156]
Most Arab countries were skeptical about the "Eisenhower doctrine" because they considered "Zionist imperialism" the real danger. However, they did take the opportunity to obtain free money and weapons. Egypt and Syria, supported by the Soviet Union, openly opposed the initiative. However, Egypt received American aid until the Six Day War in 1967.[157]
As the Cold War deepened, Dulles sought to isolate the Soviet Union by building regional alliances of nations against it. Critics sometimes called it "pacto-mania".[158]
Southeast Asia[edit source]
Early in 1953, the French asked Eisenhower for help in French Indochina against the Communists, supplied from China, who were fighting the First Indochina War. Eisenhower sent Lt. General John W. "Iron Mike" O'Daniel to Vietnam to study and "assess" the French forces there.[159] Chief of Staff Matthew Ridgway dissuaded the President from intervening by presenting a comprehensive estimate of the massive military deployment that would be necessary. Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions."[160]
Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel. After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes. Further requests for assistance from the French were agreed to but only on conditions Ike knew were impossible to meet – allied participation and congressional approval.[161] When Dien Bien Phu fell in May 1954, Ike refused to intervene despite urgings from the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs, the Vice President and the head of NCS.[162] Eisenhower responded with the formation of SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization), alliance with the U.K., France, New Zealand and Australia in defense of Vietnam against communism. At that time the French and Chinese reconvened Geneva peace talks; Eisenhower agreed the U.S. would participate only as an observer. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam.[163] Ambrose argues that Eisenhower, by not participating in the Geneva agreement, had kept the U.S out of Vietnam; nevertheless, with the formation of SEATO, he had in the end put the U.S. back into the conflict.[164]
In late 1954, Gen. J. Lawton Collins was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam" (the term South Vietnam came into use in 1955), effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader Ngo Dinh Diem in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign.[165] In February 1955, Eisenhower dispatched the first American soldiers to Vietnam as military advisors to Diem's army. After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam (RVN, commonly known as South Vietnam) in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance.[166] In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of US military advisors in South Vietnam to 900 men.[167] This was due to North Vietnam's support of "uprisings" in the south and concern the nation would fall.[163] In May 1957 Diem, then President of South Vietnam, made a state visit to the United States for ten days. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives.[168] After the election of November 1960, Eisenhower in briefing with John F. Kennedy pointed out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration. Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered Laos to be "the cork in the bottle" with regard to the regional threat.[169]
1960 U-2 incident[edit source]
Main article: 1960 U-2 incident
On May 1, 1960, a U.S. one-man U-2 spy plane was reportedly shot down at high altitude over Soviet Union airspace. The flight was made to gain photo intelligence before the scheduled opening of an East–West summit conference, which had been scheduled in Paris, 15 days later.[170] Captain Francis Gary Powers had bailed out of his aircraft and was captured after parachuting down onto Russian soil. Four days after Powers disappeared, the Eisenhower Administration had NASA issue a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey. It speculated that the pilot might have fallen unconscious while the autopilot was still engaged, and falsely claimed that "the pilot reported over the emergency frequency that he was experiencing oxygen difficulties."[171]



 a U-2 reconnaissance aircraft in flight
Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev announced that a "spy-plane" had been shot down but intentionally made no reference to the pilot. As a result, the Eisenhower Administration, thinking the pilot had died in the crash, authorized the release of a cover story claiming that the plane was a "weather research aircraft" which had unintentionally strayed into Soviet airspace after the pilot had radioed "difficulties with his oxygen equipment" while flying over Turkey.[172] The Soviets put Captain Powers on trial and displayed parts of the U-2 which had been recovered almost fully intact. The 1960 Four Power Paris Summit between President Dwight Eisenhower, Nikita Khrushchev, Harold Macmillan and Charles de Gaulle collapsed because of the incident. Eisenhower refused to accede to Khrushchev's demands that he apologize. Therefore Khrushchev would not take part in the summit. Up until this event, Eisenhower felt he had been making progress towards better relations with the Soviet Union. Nuclear arms reduction and Berlin were to have been discussed at the summit. Eisenhower stated it had all been ruined because of that "stupid U-2 business".[173] The affair was an embarrassment for United States prestige. Further, the Senate Foreign Relations Committee held a lengthy inquiry into the U-2 incident.[173] In Russia, Captain Powers made a forced confession and apology. On August 19, 1960, Powers was convicted of espionage and sentenced to imprisonment. On February 10, 1962, Powers was exchanged for Rudolf Abel in Berlin and returned to the U.S.[171]
Civil rights[edit source]
While President Truman had begun the process of desegregating the Armed Forces in 1948, actual implementation had been slow. Eisenhower made clear his stance in his first State of the Union message in February 1953, saying "I propose to use whatever authority exists in the office of the President to end segregation in the District of Columbia, including the Federal Government, and any segregation in the Armed Forces".[174] When he encountered opposition from the services, he used government control of military spending to force the change through, stating "Wherever Federal Funds are expended ... , I do not see how any American can justify ... a discrimination in the expenditure of those funds".[175] When Robert B. Anderson, Eisenhower's first Secretary of the Navy argued that the Navy must recognize the "customs and usages prevailing in certain geographic areas of our country which the Navy had no part in creating", Eisenhower overruled him: "We have not taken and we shall not take a single backward step. There must be no second class citizens in this country."[176]
The administration declared racial discrimination a national security issue, as Communists around the world used the racial discrimination and history of violence in the U.S. as a point of propaganda attack.[177] The day after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education, that segregated schools were unconstitutional, Eisenhower told District of Columbia officials to make Washington a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public school children.[178][179] He proposed to Congress the Civil Rights Acts of 1957 and 1960 and signed those acts into law. The 1957 act for the first time established a permanent civil rights office inside the Justice Department and a Civil Rights Commission to hear testimony about abuses of voting rights. Although both acts were much weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since 1875.[180]
In 1957, the state of Arkansas refused to honor a federal court order to integrate their public school system stemming from the Brown decision. Eisenhower demanded that Arkansas governor Orval Faubus obey the court order. When Faubus balked, the president placed the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and sent in the 101st Airborne Division. They escorted and protected nine black students' entry to Little Rock Central High School, an all-white public school, for the first time since the Reconstruction era.[181] Martin Luther King, Jr., wrote to Eisenhower to thank him for his actions, writing "The overwhelming majority of southerners, Negro and white, stand firmly behind your resolute action to restore law and order in Little Rock".[182]
Relations with Congress[edit source]
Eisenhower had a Republican Congress for only his first two years in office; in the Senate, the Republican majority was by a one vote margin. Senator Taft assisted the President greatly in working with the Old Guard, and was sorely missed when his death left Eisenhower with his successor William Knowland, whom Eisenhower disliked.[183]
This prevented Eisenhower from openly condemning Joseph McCarthy's highly criticized methods against communism. In order to facilitate relations with Congress, Ike decided to ignore McCarthy's controversies and thereby deprive them of more energy from involvement of the White House. This position drew criticism from a number of corners.[184] In late 1953 McCarthy declared on national T.V. that the employment of communists within the government was a menace and would be a pivotal issue in the 1954 elections; Ike was urged to respond directly and specify the various measures he had taken to purge the government of communists.[185] Nevertheless he refused. Among Ike's objectives in not directly confronting McCarthy was to prevent McCarthy from dragging the Atomic Energy Commission into McCarthy's witch hunt for communists, which would interfere with, and perhaps delay, the AEC's important work on H-bombs. The administration had discovered through its own investigations that one of the leading scientists on the AEC, J. Robert Oppenheimer, had urged that the H-bomb work be delayed; Eisenhower removed him from the agency and revoked his security clearance, though he knew this would create fertile ground for the extremist McCarthy.[186] In May 1955 McCarthy threatened to issue subpoenas to White House personnel; Eisenhower was furious, and issued an order as follows: "It is essential to efficient and effective administration that employees of the Executive Branch be in a position to be completely candid in advising with each other on official matters ... it is not in the public interest that any of their conversations or communications, or any documents or reproductions, concerning such advice be disclosed." This was an unprecedented step by Eisenhower to protect communication beyond the confines of a cabinet meeting, and soon became a tradition known as Executive privilege. Ike's denial of McCarthy's access to his staff reduced McCarthy's hearings to rants about trivial matters, and contributed to his ultimate downfall.[187]
In early 1954 the Old Guard put forward a constitutional amendment, called the Bricker Amendment, which would curtail international agreements by the Chief Executive, such as the Yalta Agreements; Eisenhower opposed the measure.[188] The Old Guard agreed with Ike, however, on the development and ownership of nuclear reactors by private enterprises, which the Democrats opposed. The President succeeded in getting legislation creating a system of licensure for nuclear plants by the AEC.[189]
The Democrats gained a majority in both houses in the 1954 election.[190] He had to work with the Democratic Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson (later U.S. president) in the Senate and Speaker Sam Rayburn in the House, both of Texas. Joe Martin, the Republican Speaker from 1947 to 1949 and again from 1953 to 1955, wrote that Eisenhower "never surrounded himself with assistants who could solve political problems with professional skill. There were exceptions, Leonard W. Hall, for example, who as chairman of the Republican National Committee tried to open the administration's eyes to the political facts of life, with occasional success. However, these exceptions were not enough to right the balance."[191] Speaker Martin concluded that Eisenhower worked too much through subordinates in dealing with Congress, with results, "often the reverse of what he has desired" because Members of Congress,"resent having some young fellow who was picked up by the White House without ever having been elected to office himself coming around and telling them 'The Chief wants this'. The administration never made use of many Republicans of consequence whose services in one form or another would have been available for the asking."[191]
Judicial appointments[edit source]
Supreme Court[edit source]
Main article: Dwight D. Eisenhower Supreme Court candidates
Eisenhower appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States:
Earl Warren, 1953 (Chief Justice)
John Marshall Harlan II, 1954
William J. Brennan, 1956
Charles Evans Whittaker, 1957
Potter Stewart, 1958
Whittaker was unsuited for the role and soon retired. Stewart and Harlan were conservative Republicans, while Brennan was a Democrat who became a leading voice for liberalism.[192] In selecting a Chief Justice Eisenhower looked for an experienced jurist who could appeal to liberals in the party as well as law-and-order conservatives, noting privately that Warren "represents the kind of political, economic, and social thinking that I believe we need on the Supreme Court ... He has a national name for integrity, uprightness, and courage that, again, I believe we need on the Court".[193] In the next few years Warren led the Court in a series of liberal decisions that revolutionized the role of the Court. After his retirement, Eisenhower referred to his appointments of Warren and Brennan as his "great mistakes as President."[194][195]
Other courts[edit source]
Main article: Dwight D. Eisenhower judicial appointments
In addition to his five Supreme Court appointments, Eisenhower appointed 45 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 129 judges to the United States district courts.
States admitted to the Union[edit source]
Alaska – January 3, 1959 49th state
Hawaii – August 21, 1959 50th state
Health issues[edit source]
Eisenhower was a chain smoker until March 1949.[196] He was probably the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office,[197] On September 24, 1955, while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious heart attack that required six weeks' hospitalization, during which time Nixon, Dulles and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the President.[198] He was treated by Dr. Paul Dudley White, a cardiologist with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the President's progress. Instead of eliminating him as a candidate for a second term as President, his physician recommended a second term as essential to his recovery.[199] As a consequence of his heart attack, Eisenhower developed a left ventricular aneurysm, which was in turn the cause of a mild stroke on November 25, 1957. This incident occurred during a cabinet meeting when Eisenhower suddenly found himself unable to speak or move his right hand. The stroke had caused an aphasia. The president also suffered from Crohn's disease, a chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine, which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction on June 9, 1956. He was still recovering from this operation during the Suez Crisis.
Eisenhower's health issues forced him to give up smoking and make some changes to his dietary habits, but he still indulged in alcohol. During a visit to England he complained of dizziness and had to have his blood pressure checked on August 29, 1959; however, before dinner at Chequers on the next day his doctor General Howard Snyder recalled Eisenhower "drank several gin-and-tonics, and one or two gins on the rocks ... three or four wines with the dinner".[200]
The last three years of Eisenhower's second term in office were ones of relatively good health. Eventually after leaving the White House, he suffered several additional and ultimately crippling heart attacks.[201] A severe heart attack in August 1965 largely ended his participation in public affairs.[202] In August 1966 he began to show symptoms of cholecystitis, for which he underwent surgery on December 12, 1966 when his gallbladder was removed, containing 16 gallstones.[201] After Eisenhower's death in 1969 (see below), an autopsy unexpectedly revealed an adrenal pheochromocytoma,[203] a benign adrenaline-secreting tumor that may have made the President more vulnerable to heart disease. Eisenhower suffered seven heart attacks in total from 1955 until his death.[201]
End of presidency 1960–1961[edit source]



 Official White House portrait of Dwight D. Eisenhower.
The 22nd Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was ratified in 1951, and it set term limits to the presidency of two terms. It stipulated that Harry S. Truman, the incumbent at the time, would not be affected by the amendment. In 1961, Eisenhower became the first U.S. president to be constitutionally prevented from running for re-election to the office, having served the maximum two terms allowed.
Eisenhower was also the first outgoing President to come under the protection of the Former Presidents Act; two living former Presidents, Herbert Hoover and Harry S. Truman, left office before the Act was passed. Under the act, Eisenhower was entitled to receive a lifetime pension, state-provided staff and a Secret Service detail.[204]
In the 1960 election to choose his successor, Eisenhower endorsed his own Vice President, Republican Richard Nixon against Democrat John F. Kennedy. He told friends, "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy."[99] He actively campaigned for Nixon in the final days and may have done Nixon some harm. When asked by reporters at the end of a televised press conference to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, Eisenhower joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one. I don't remember." Kennedy's campaign used the quote in one of its campaign commercials. Nixon narrowly lost to Kennedy. Eisenhower, who was the oldest president in history at that time (then 70), was succeeded by the youngest elected president, as Kennedy was 43.[99]





 Eisenhower's farewell address, January 17, 1961. Length 15:30.
On January 17, 1961, Eisenhower gave his final televised Address to the Nation from the Oval Office.[205] In his farewell speech, Eisenhower raised the issue of the Cold War and role of the U.S. armed forces. He described the Cold War: "We face a hostile ideology global in scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method ..." and warned about what he saw as unjustified government spending proposals and continued with a warning that "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military–industrial complex." He said, "we recognize the imperative need for this development ... the potential for the disastrous rise of misplaced power exists and will persist ... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together."
Because of legal issues related to holding a military rank while in a civilian office, Eisenhower had resigned his permanent commission as General of the Army before entering the office of President of the United States. Upon completion of his Presidential term, his commission was reactivated by Congress and Eisenhower again was commissioned a five-star general in the United States Army.[206][207]
Retirement, death and funeral[edit source]



 Eisenhower meets with President Johnson in October 1965


 Eisenhower's funeral service
Eisenhower retired to the place where he and Mamie had spent much of their post-war time, a working farm adjacent to the battlefield at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, only thirty miles from his ancestral home of York. In 1967, the Eisenhowers donated the farm to the National Park Service. In retirement, the former president did not completely retreat from political life; he spoke at the 1964 Republican National Convention and appeared with Barry Goldwater in a Republican campaign commercial from Gettysburg.[208] However, his endorsement came somewhat reluctantly because Goldwater had attacked the former president as "a dime-store New Dealer".
On March 28, 1969, Eisenhower died in Washington, D.C. of congestive heart failure at Walter Reed Army Hospital. The following day his body was moved to the Washington National Cathedral's Bethlehem Chapel, where he lay in repose for 28 hours. On March 30, his body was brought by caisson to the United States Capitol, where he lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda. On March 31, Eisenhower's body was returned to the National Cathedral, where he was given an Episcopal Church funeral service. That evening, Eisenhower's body was placed onto a train en route to Abilene, Kansas. His body arrived on April 2, and was interred later that day in a small chapel on the grounds of the Eisenhower Presidential Library. Eisenhower is buried alongside his son Doud, who died at age 3 in 1921. His wife Mamie was buried next to him after her death in 1979.[209]
Richard Nixon, then President, spoke of Eisenhower,

Some men are considered great because they lead great armies or they lead powerful nations. For eight years now, Dwight Eisenhower has neither commanded an army nor led a nation; and yet he remained through his final days the world's most admired and respected man, truly the first citizen of the world.[210]
Legacy and memory[edit source]
After Eisenhower left office, his reputation declined. He was widely seen[by whom?] as an inactive, uninspiring president compared to his vigorous young successor. Despite his unprecedented use of Army troops to enforce a federal desegregation order at Central High School in Little Rock, Eisenhower was criticized for his reluctance to support the civil rights movement to the degree which activists wanted. Eisenhower also attracted criticism for his handling of the 1960 U-2 incident and the associated international embarrassment,[211][212] for the Soviet Union's perceived leadership in the nuclear arms race and the Space Race, and for his failure to oppose McCarthyism in public. In particular, Eisenhower was criticized for failing to defend George Marshall from attacks by Joseph McCarthy, though he privately deplored McCarthy's tactics and claims.[213] Such omissions were held against him during the liberal climate of the 1960s and 1970s. Since that time, however, Eisenhower's reputation has risen. Recent surveys of historians[when?] often rank Eisenhower in the top 10 of all U.S. presidents.



 On June 1, 1954, this signing ceremony changed Armistice Day to Veterans Day.
Historian John Lewis Gaddis has summarized the turnaround in evaluations by historians:

Historians long ago abandoned the view that Eisenhower's was a failed presidency. He did, after all, end the Korean War without getting into any others. He stabilized, and did not escalate, the Soviet-American rivalry. He strengthened European alliances while withdrawing support from European colonialism. He rescued the Republican Party from isolationism and McCarthyism. He maintained prosperity, balanced the budget, promoted technological innovation, facilitated (if reluctantly) the civil rights movement and warned, in the most memorable farewell address since Washington's, of a "military-industrial complex" that could endanger the nation's liberties. Not until Reagan would another president leave office with so strong a sense of having accomplished what he set out to do.[214]
Although conservatism in politics was strong during the 1950s and Eisenhower generally espoused conservative sentiments, his administration concerned itself mostly with foreign affairs (an area in which the career-military president had more knowledge) and pursued a hands-off domestic policy. Eisenhower looked to moderation and cooperation as a means of governance.[215] Although he sought to slow or contain the New Deal and other federal programs, he did not attempt to repeal them outright, and in doing so was popular among the liberal wing of the Republican Party.[215] Conservative critics of his administration found that he did not do enough to advance the goals of the right: "Eisenhower's victories were," according to Hans Morgenthau, "but accidents without consequence in the history of the Republican party."[216]
Eisenhower introduced the office of a White House Chief of Staff or "gatekeeper" – an idea which he borrowed from the United States Army. Every president after Lyndon Johnson has also appointed staff to this position. Initially, Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter tried to operate without a chief of staff, but each eventually appointed one.
Eisenhower founded People to People International in 1956, based on his belief that citizen interaction would promote cultural interaction and world peace. The program includes a student ambassador component which sends American youth on educational trips to other countries.[217]



 Eisenhower with John F. Kennedy, April 22, 1961
Tributes and memorials[edit source]
Eisenhower is remembered for his role in World War II, the creation of the Interstate Highway System and ending the Korean War.



 Eisenhower Interstate System sign south of San Antonio, Texas


 Bronze statue of Eisenhower at Capitol rotunda.[218]
The Interstate Highway System is officially known as the 'Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways' in his honor. Commemorative signs reading "Eisenhower Interstate System" and bearing Eisenhower's permanent 5-star rank insignia were introduced in 1993 and are currently displayed throughout the Interstate System. Several highways are also named for him, including the Eisenhower Expressway (Interstate 290) near Chicago and the Eisenhower Tunnel on Interstate 70 west of Denver.
The British A4 class steam locomotive No. 4496 (renumbered 60008) Golden Shuttle was renamed Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1946. It is preserved at the National Railroad Museum in Green Bay, Wisconsin. USS Dwight D. Eisenhower, the second Nimitz-class supercarrier, was named in his honor.
Eisenhower College was a small, liberal arts college chartered in Seneca Falls, New York in 1965, with classes beginning in 1968. Financial problems forced the school to fall under the management of the Rochester Institute of Technology in 1979. Its last class graduated in 1983.
Eisenhower Hall, the cadet activities building at West Point, was completed in 1974.[219] In 1983, the Eisenhower Monument was unveiled at West Point.
The Eisenhower Medical Center in Rancho Mirage, California was named after the President in 1971.
The Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center, located at Fort Gordon near Augusta, Georgia, was named in his honor.[220]
In 1983, The Eisenhower Institute was founded in Washington, D.C., as a policy institute to advance Eisenhower's intellectual and leadership legacies.
In 1989, U.S. Ambassador Charles Price and British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher dedicated a bronze statue of Eisenhower in Grosvenor Square, London. The statue is located in front of the current US Embassy, London and across from the former command center for the Allied Expeditionary Force during World War II, offices Eisenhower occupied during the war.[221]
In 1999, the United States Congress created the Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial Commission, to create an enduring national memorial in Washington, D.C.. In 2009, the commission chose the architect Frank Gehry to design the memorial.[222][223] The memorial will stand near the National Mall on Maryland Avenue, SW across the street from the National Air and Space Museum.[224]
On May 7, 2002, the Old Executive Office Building was officially renamed the Eisenhower Executive Office Building. This building is part of the White House Complex, and is west of the West Wing. It currently houses a number of executive offices, including ones for the Vice President and his or her spouse.[225]
A county park in East Meadow, New York (Long Island) is named in his honor.[226] Eisenhower State Park on Lake Texoma near his birthplace of Denison is named in his honor.
His birthplace is currently operated by the State of Texas as the Eisenhower Birthplace State Historic Site. Since 1980, the National Park Service has allowed visitors to the Eisenhower Farm adjacent to the Gettysburg Battlefield.
Many public high schools and middle schools in the U.S. are named after Eisenhower.
Mount Eisenhower was named in the Presidential Range of the White Mountains in New Hampshire.
The Eisenhower Golf Club at the United States Air Force Academy, a 36-hole facility featuring the Blue and Silver courses, which is ranked No. 1 among DoD courses, is named in his honor.
Eisenhower Park on Washington Square in Newport, Rhode Island, dedicated by President Eisenhower in 1960.
The 18th hole at Cherry Hills Country Club, near Denver, is named in his honor. Eisenhower was a longtime member of the club, which operated one of his favorite courses.[227]
A loblolly pine, known as the "Eisenhower Pine", is located on the 17th hole, approximately 210 yards (192 m) from the Masters tee. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, an Augusta National member, hit the tree so many times that, at a 1956 club meeting, he proposed that it be cut down. Not wanting to offend the president, the club's chairman, Clifford Roberts, immediately adjourned the meeting rather than reject the request.[citation needed]
During a visit to Augusta National, then General Eisenhower returned from a walk through the woods on the eastern part of the grounds, and informed Clifford Roberts that he had found a perfect place to build a dam if the club would like a fish pond. Ike's Pond was built and named, and the dam is located just where Eisenhower said it should be.[citation needed]
Awards and decorations[edit source]



 The star of the Soviet Order of Victory awarded to Eisenhower.[228]
U.S. military decorations

Bronze oak leaf cluster
Bronze oak leaf cluster
Bronze oak leaf cluster
Bronze oak leaf cluster
   Army Distinguished Service Medal w/ 4 oak leaf clusters
 Navy Distinguished Service Medal
 Legion of Merit
U.S. Service Medals
 Mexican Border Service Medal
 World War I Victory Medal
 American Defense Service Medal

Silver star
Bronze star
Bronze star
Bronze star
Bronze star
   European-African-Middle Eastern Campaign Medal w/ 9 service stars
 World War II Victory Medal
 Army of Occupation Medal w/ "Germany" clasp

Bronze star
   National Defense Service Medal w/ 1 service star
International and Foreign Awards[229]
 Order of the Liberator San Martin, Grand Cross (Argentine)
 Grand Decoration of Honour in Gold with Sash (Austria)[230]
 Order of Leopold, Grand Cordon (Belgium)
 Croix de guerre w/ palm (Belgium)
 Order of the Southern Cross, Grand Cross (Brazil)
 Order of Military Merit, Grand Cross (Brazil)
 Order of Aeronautical Merit, Grand Cross (Brazil)
 War Medal (Brazil)
 Campaign Medal (Brazil)
 Order of the Merit of Chile, Grand Cross (Chile)
 Order of Cloud and Banner, Grand Cordon, Special Class (China)
 Order of the White Lion, Grand cross (Czechoslovakia)
 War Cross 1939–1945 (Czechoslovakia)
 Order of the Elephant, Knight (Denmark)
 Order of Abdon Calderón, First Class (Ecuador)
 Order of Ismail, Grand Cordon with Star (Egypt)
 Order of Solomon, Knight Grand Cross with Cordon (Ethiopia)
 Order of the Queen of Sheba, Member (Ethiopia)
 Legion of Honor, Grand Cross (France)
 Order of Liberation, Companion (France)
 Military Medal (France)[231]
 Croix de guerre w/ palm (France)
 Royal Order of George I, Knight Grand Cross with Swords (Greece)
 Royal Order of the Savior, Knight Grand Cross (Greece)
 Cross of Military Merit, First Class (Guatemala)
 National Order of Honour and Merit, Grand Cross with Gold Badge (Haiti)
 Order of the Holy Sepulchre, Knight (Holy See)
 Military Order of Italy, Knight Grand Cross with Swords (Italy)
 Order of the Chrysanthemum, Grand Cordon (Japan)
 Order of the Oak Crown, Grand Cross (Luxembourg)
 Luxembourg War Cross (Luxembourg)
 Order of the Aztec Eagle, Collar (Mexico)
 Medal of Military Merit (Mexico)
 Medal of Civic Merit (Mexico)
 Order of Ouissam Alaouite, Grand Cross (Morocco)
 Order of the Netherlands Lion, Knight Grand Cross (Netherlands)
 Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav, Grand Cross (Norway)
 Order of Nishan-e-Pakistan, First Class (Pakistan)
 Orden Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Grand Cross (Panama)
 Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero, Grand Collar (Panama)
 Order of Sikatuna, Grand Collar (Philippines)
 Legion of Honor, Chief Commander (Philippines)
 Distinguished Service Star, (Philippines)
 Order of Polonia Restituta, Knight (Poland)
 Order of Virtuti Militari, First Class (Poland)
 Cross of Grunwald, First Class (Poland)
 Order pro merito Melitensi, Knight Grand Cross (Sovereign Military Order of Malta)
 Order of the Royal House of Chakri, Knight (Thailand)
 Order of Nichan Iftikhar, Grand Cordon (Tunisia)
 Order of the Bath, Knight Grand Cross (United Kingdom)
 Order of Merit, Member (United Kingdom)
 Africa Star, with "8" and "1" numerical devices (United Kingdom)
 Order of Victory, Star (USSR)
 Order of Suvorov, First Class (USSR)
 The Royal Yugoslav Commemorative War Cross (Yugoslavia)
Other honors[edit source]
In 1947 Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands presented General Eisenhower with a golden inlaid Honorary Sabre.[citation needed]
In 1966, Eisenhower was the second person to be awarded Civitan International's World Citizenship Award.[232]
The USS Dwight D. Eisenhower (CVN-69) aircraft carrier, commissioned in 1977, was named after the former president.
Eisenhower's name was given to a variety of streets, avenues, etc., in cities around the world, including Paris, France.
In December 1999, Eisenhower was listed on Gallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th century.
In 2009, Eisenhower was named to the World Golf Hall of Fame in the Lifetime Achievement category for his contributions to the sport.[233]
An apartment at the top of the Culzean Castle in Scotland was given to General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower in recognition of his role as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe during the Second World War. The General first visited Culzean Castle in 1946 and stayed there four times, including once while President of the United States. An Eisenhower exhibition occupies one of the rooms, with mementoes of his lifetime.[234]
See also[edit source]

Portal icon Biography portal
Portal icon United States Army portal
Portal icon World War I portal
Portal icon World War II portal
And I don't care what it is, phrase by Eisenhower, 1952, on religion
Atoms for Peace, a speech to the UN General Assembly in December 1953
Eisenhower Dollar
Eisenhower National Historic Site
Eisenhower on U.S. Postage stamps
Eisenhower Presidential Center
Historical rankings of United States Presidents
History of the United States (1945–1964)
Ike: Countdown to D-Day A 2004 American television film about Eisenhower's difficult decisions he had to make as Supreme Commander that led to the successful D-Day invasion of World War II.
List of Presidents of the United States
People to People Student Ambassador Program
Kay Summersby
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90.^ Ambrose (1983). Eisenhower, ch. 24
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113.^ Ambrose (1984), p.285–288.
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125.^ Ambrose (1984), p.94.
126.^ Eisenhower, Susan, "50 years later, we're still ignoring Ike's warning", The Washington Post, January 16, 2011, p. B3.
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128.^ Ambrose (1984), p. 144.
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130.^ Ambrose (1984), p.265.
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136.^ Ambrose (1984), p. 228.
137.^ Greenberg, David (January 14, 2011) "Beware the Military-Industrial Complex", Slate
138.^ Yankek Mieczkowski, Eisenhower's Sputnik Moment: The Race for Space and World Prestige (Cornell University Press; 2013)
139.^ Peter J. Roman, Eisenhower and the Missile Gap (1996)
140.^ Ambrose (1984), p. 51.
141.^ Jones, Matthew (2008). "Targeting China: U.S. Nuclear Planning and 'Massive Retaliation' in East Asia, 1953–1955". Journal of Cold War Studies 10 (4): 37–65. doi:10.1162/jcws.2008.10.4.37.
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182.^ to DDE, September 25, 1957, Eisenhower Library
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184.^ Ambrose (1984), pp. 56–62.
185.^ Ambrose (1984), p. 140.
186.^ Ambrose (1984), p. 167.
187.^ Ambrose (1984), p. 188–189.
188.^ Ambrose (1984), p. 154.
189.^ Ambrose (1984), p. 157.
190.^ Ambrose (1984), p. 219.
191.^ a b Joseph W. Martin as told to Donavan, Robert J. (1960), My First Fifty Years in Politics, New York: McGraw Hill, p. 227
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194.^ Lichtman, Robert M. (2012). The Supreme Court and McCarthy-Era Repression: One Hundred Decisions. University of Illinois Press. p. 223. ISBN 978-0-252-03700-9.
195.^ Cray, Ed (1997). Chief Justice: A Biography of Earl Warren. Simon and Schuster. p. 337. ISBN 978-0-684-80852-9.
196.^ Alex Forman (March 28, 1969). "Tall, Slim & Erect: Dwight Eisenhower, 34th". Tallslimerect.com. Retrieved December 10, 2011.
197.^ Ferrell, R. H. (1992), Ill-Advised: Presidential Health & Public Trust, University of Missouri Press, Columbia, MO. pp. 53–150
198.^ Ambrose (1984), p.272.
199.^ Ambrose (1984), p.281.
200.^ Williams, Charles Harold Macmillan (2009) p. 345
201.^ a b c "President Dwight Eisenhower: Health & Medical History". doctorzebra.com. Retrieved January 22, 2013.
202.^ "Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum". Eisenhower.archives.gov. Retrieved December 10, 2011.
203.^ Messerli FH, Loughlin KR, Messerli AW, Welch WR: The President and the pheochromocytoma. Am J Cardiol 2007; 99: 1325–1329.
204.^ "Former Presidents Act". National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
205.^ "Dwight D. Eisenhower Farewell Address". USA Presidents. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
206.^ Post Presidential Years. Eisenhower Archives. "President Kennedy reactivated his commission as a five star general in the United States Army. With the exception of George Washington, Eisenhower is the only United States President with military service to reenter the Armed Forces after leaving the office of President."
207.^ "John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum, A Chronology from The New York Times, March 1961". March 23, 1961. Retrieved May 30, 2009. "Mr. Kennedy signed into law the act of Congress restoring the five-star rank of General of the Army to his predecessor, Dwight D. Eisenhower. (15:5)"
208.^ "Ike at Gettysburg (Goldwater, 1964)". 1964: Johnson vs. Goldwater. Museum of the Moving Image. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
209.^ "Dwight D. Eisenhower – Final Post". Eisenhower Presidential Center. Retrieved August 21, 2012.
210.^ "1969 Year in Review: Eisenhower, Judy Garland die". UPI. October 25, 2005. Retrieved May 3, 2010.
211.^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 27. ISBN 0-465-04195-7.
212.^ Walsh, Kenneth T. (June 6, 2008). "Presidential Lies and Deceptions". US News and World Report.
213.^ "Presidential Politics". Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
214.^ John Lewis Gaddis, "He Made It Look Easy: 'Eisenhower in War and Peace,' by Jean Edward Smith," New York Times Book Review April 20, 2012
215.^ a b Griffith, Robert. "Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Corporate Commonwealth." http://www.jstor.org/stable/1863309
216.^ Morgenthau, Hans J.: "Goldwater – The Romantic Regression", in Commentary, September 1964.
217.^ "Our Heritage". peopletopeople.com. Retrieved September 29, 2009.
218.^ "Dwight D. Eisenhower". aoc.gov. Architect of the Capitol. Retrieved November 29, 2008.
219.^ Agnew, James B. (1979). Eggnog Riot. San Rafael, CA: Presidio Press. p. 197.
220.^ "History of Eisenhower Army Medical Center". Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center. Archived from the original on February 3, 2007. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
221.^ "Statue of President Eisenhower in Grosvenor Square". US Embassy. Retrieved August 21, 2012.
222.^ Mexico, New (April 1, 2009). "Frank Gehry to design Eisenhower Memorial". The Business Journals (American City Business Journals). Retrieved April 3, 2009.
223.^ Trescott, Jacqueline (April 2, 2009). "Architect Gehry Gets Design Gig For Ike Memorial". The Washington Post (The Washington Post Company).
224.^ Plumb, Tiereny (January 22, 2010). "Gilbane to manage design and construction of Eisenhower Memorial". Washington Business Journal (American City Business Journals, Inc).
225.^ "The White House. Eisenhower Executive Office Building. Construction Chronology & Historical Events for the Eisenhower Executive Office Building". Whitehouse.gov. Retrieved May 3, 2010.
226.^ "Eisenhower Park". Nassau County, New York. Retrieved May 23, 2008.
227.^ The World Atlas of Golf, second edition, 1988, Mitchell and Beazely publishers, London.
228.^ Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands in an interview with H.G. Meijer, published in "Het Vliegerkruis", Amsterdam 1997, ISBN 90-6707-347-4. page 92.
229.^ "USA and Foreign Decorations of Dwight D. Eisenhower". Eisenhower Presidential Center. Retrieved June 10, 2012.
230.^ "Questions to the Chancellor". Austrian Parliament. 2012. p. 194. Retrieved September 30, 2012.
231.^ Eisenhower, John S. D. Allies.
232.^ Armbrester, Margaret E. (1992). The Civitan Story. Birmingham, AL: Ebsco Media. p. 97.
233.^ "President Eisenhower named to World Golf Hall of Fame". PGA Tour. Retrieved May 3, 2010.
234.^ "Culzean Castle Scotland The Eisenhower Apartment Hotel Accommodation". About Scotland. John Boyd-Brent. Retrieved January 21, 2013.
Further reading[edit source]
General biographies[edit source]
Ambrose, Stephen (1983). Eisenhower: (vol. 1) Soldier, General of the Army, President-Elect (1893–1952). New York: Simon & Schuster.
Ambrose, Stephen (1984). Eisenhower: (vol. 2) The President (1952–1969). New York: Simon & Schuster.
D'Este, Carlo (2002). Eisenhower: A Soldier's Life.
Krieg, Joann P. ed. (1987). Dwight D. Eisenhower, Soldier, President, Statesman. 24 essays by scholars.
Newton, Jim. Eisenhower: The White House Years (2011)
Parmet, Herbert S. (1972). Eisenhower and the American Crusades.
Smith, Jean Edward. Eisenhower in War and Peace (Random House; 2012) 950 pages
Military career[edit source]
Ambrose, Stephen E. (1970) The Supreme Commander: The War Years of Dwight D. Eisenhower excerpt and text search
Ambrose, Stephen E. (1998). The Victors: Eisenhower and his Boys: The Men of World War II, New York : Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85628-X
Eisenhower, David (1986). Eisenhower at War 1943–1945, New York : Random House. ISBN 0-394-41237-0. A detailed study by his grandson.
Eisenhower, John S. D. (2003). General Ike, Free Press, New York. ISBN 0-7432-4474-5
Irish, Kerry E. "Apt Pupil: Dwight Eisenhower and the 1930 Industrial Mobilization Plan", The Journal of Military History 70.1 (2006) 31–61 online in Project Muse.
Jordan, Jonathan W. (2011). Brothers, Rivals, Victors: Eisenhower, Patton, Bradley, and the Partnership That Drove the Allied Conquest in Europe. NAL. ISBN 978-0-451-23212-0
Pogue, Forrest C. The Supreme Command, Washington, D.C. : Office of the Chief of Military History, Dept. of the Army, 1954. The official Army history of SHAEF.
Weigley, Russell (1981). Eisenhower's Lieutenants, Indiana University Press. Ike's dealings with his key generals in World War II.
Civilian career[edit source]
Bowie, Robert R. and Immerman, Richard H. (1998). Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy, Oxford University Press.
Chernus, Ira (2008). Apocalypse Management: Eisenhower and the Discourse of National Insecurity, Stanford University Press.
Damms, Richard V. The Eisenhower Presidency, 1953–1961 (2002).
David Paul T., ed. (1954). Presidential Nominating Politics in 1952. 5 vols., Johns Hopkins Press.
Divine, Robert A. (1981). Eisenhower and the Cold War.
Greenstein, Fred I. (1991). The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader.
Harris, Douglas B. "Dwight Eisenhower and the New Deal: The Politics of Preemption", Presidential Studies Quarterly, Vol. 27, 1997.
Harris, Seymour E. (1962). The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy.
Medhurst, Martin J. (1993). Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator Greenwood Press.
Mayer, Michael S. (2009). The Eisenhower Years, 1024 pp; short biographies by experts of 500 prominent figures, with some primary sources.
Newton, Jim. (2011) Eisenhower: The White House Years
Pach, Chester J. and Richardson, Elmo (1991). Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower. Standard scholarly survey.
Historiography and interpretations by scholars[edit source]
Burk, Robert. "Eisenhower Revisionism Revisited: Reflections on Eisenhower Scholarship", Historian, Spring 1988, Vol. 50, Issue 2, pp. 196–209
McAuliffe, Mary S. "Eisenhower, the President", Journal of American History 68 (1981), pp. 625–632 in JSTOR
McMahon, Robert J. "Eisenhower and Third World Nationalism: A Critique of the Revisionists," Political Science Quarterly (1986) 101#3 pp. 453–473 in JSTOR
Rabe, Stephen G. "Eisenhower Revisionism: A Decade of Scholarship," Diplomatic History (1993) 17#1 pp 97–115.
Schlesinger, Jr., Arthur. "The Ike Age Revisited," Reviews in American History (1983) 11#1 pp. 1–11 in JSTOR
Streeter, Stephen M. "Interpreting the 1954 U.S. Intervention In Guatemala: Realist, Revisionist, and Postrevisionist Perspectives," History Teacher (2000) 34#1 pp 61–74. in JSTOR
Primary sources[edit source]
Boyle, Peter G., ed. (1990). The Churchill–Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953–1955. University of North Carolina Press.
Boyle, Peter G., ed. (2005). The Eden–Eisenhower correspondence, 1955–1957. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-2935-8
Butcher, Harry C. My Three Years With Eisenhower The Personal Diary of Captain Harry C. Butcher, USNR (1946), candid memoir by a top aide
Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1948). Crusade in Europe, his war memoirs.
Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1963). Mandate for Change, 1953–1956.
Eisenhower, Dwight D. (1965). The White House Years: Waging Peace 1956–1961, Doubleday and Co.
Eisenhower Papers 21 volume scholarly edition; complete for 1940–1961.
Summersby, Kay (1948). Eisenhower was My Boss, New York: Prentice Hall; (1949) Dell paperback.
External links[edit source]
Find more about Dwight D. Eisenhower at Wikipedia's sister projects
 Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
 Media from Commons
 Learning resources from Wikiversity
 Quotations from Wikiquote
 Source texts from Wikisource
 Textbooks from Wikibooks
Audio and video[edit source]
1952 Ike for President TV Ad on YouTube
Full audio of Eisenhower speeches via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (University of Virginia)
Eisenhower's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (University of Virginia)
Audio clips of Eisenhower's speeches
The short film Big Picture: The Dwight D. Eisenhower Story is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
A film clip Bonn Hails Ike! Says U.S. Will Stand By Berlin, 1959/08/27 (1959) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
Dwight D. Eisenhower at C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits
Audio and images of Eisenhower becoming an honorary fellow for life of the Metropolitan Museum of Art
For additional research[edit source]
Finding aids to the Papers and Records of Dwight D. Eisenhower at the Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library
Documents available online from the Dwight D. Presidential Library
Dwight D. Eisenhower Papers at the Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University
Annotated Bibliography for Dwight D. Eisenhower from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
Dwight D. Eisenhower: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
Dwight D. Eisenhower collected news and commentary at The New York Times
First Inaugural Address
Second Inaugural Address
Farewell Address (Wikisource)
Original Letters and Primary Sources: Dwight D. Eisenhower Shapell Manuscript Foundation
The Presidential Papers of Dwight David Eisenhower (searchable online)
TIME Magazine Cover: Dwight D. Eisenhower, April 4, 1969
Thaw in the Cold War: Eisenhower and Khrushchev at Gettysburg, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
Essay on Dwight D. Eisenhower with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
Organizations[edit source]
Eisenhower Presidential Library & Museum, including Home and Tomb
The Eisenhower Center for American Studies at the University of New Orleans
The Eisenhower Presidential Library and Museum, Abilene, Kansas

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Dwight D. Eisenhower, thirty-fourth President of the United States



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Michelle Rodriguez

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Michelle Rodriguez
Michelle Rodriguez by Gage Skidmore 2.jpg
Michelle Rodriguez in 2013.

Born
Mayte Michelle Rodríguez
 July 12, 1978 (age 35)
San Antonio, Texas, U.S.
Occupation
Actress, screenwriter
Years active
2000–present
Website
www.michelle-rodriguez.com
Mayte Michelle Rodríguez[1] (born July 12, 1978)[2] is an American actress. Following her breakout role in Girlfight (2000), she has played tough girls and starred in Hollywood blockbusters such as The Fast and the Furious (2001), Resident Evil (2002), S.W.A.T. (2003), Avatar (2009), Fast & Furious (2009), Machete (2010), Resident Evil: Retribution (2012), Fast & Furious 6 (2013), and Machete Kills (2013). She is also known for playing Ana Lucia Cortez in the second season of the television series Lost (2005–2010).

Contents
  [hide] 1 Early life
2 Career 2.1 Typecast
2.2 Notable rankings
2.3 Writing
3 Personal life 3.1 Relationships
3.2 Legal issues
4 Filmography 4.1 Film
4.2 Television
4.3 Video games
5 References
6 External links

Early life[edit]
Rodriguez was born in San Antonio, Texas. Her mother, Carmen Milady (née Pared Espinal), is a native of the Dominican Republic, and her father, Rafael Rodriguez, is a Puerto Rican who served in the United States Army.[3][4][5] Rodriguez moved to the Dominican Republic with her mother when she was eight years old and lived there until the age of 11, later settling in Jersey City, New Jersey. She dropped out of high school but later earned her GED;[6] in total, she was expelled from five schools.[7] She briefly attended business school before quitting to pursue a career in acting, with the ultimate goal of becoming a screenwriter and director.[8]
Career[edit]



 Rodriguez at the New York Fashion Week, spring 2006
Having run across an ad for an open casting call and attending her first audition, Rodriguez beat 350 other applicants to win her first role in the low-budget 2000 independent film Girlfight. With her performance as Diana Guzman, a troubled teen who decides to channel her aggression by training to become a boxer,[9] Rodriguez accumulated several awards and nominations for the role in independent circles, including major acting accolades from the National Board of Review, Deauville Film Festival,[10] Independent Spirit Awards,[11] Gotham Awards,[12] Las Vegas Film Critics Sierra Awards, and many others. The film itself took home a top prize at the Sundance[13] and won Award of the Youth at the Cannes Film Festival. In 2002, she had a cameo appearance in Ja Rule's music video for his song "Always On Time".
Rodriguez has had notable roles in other successful movies, including Letty Ortiz in The Fast and the Furious (2001) and Rain Ocampo in Resident Evil (2002). She also appeared in Blue Crush, and S.W.A.T..[14] In 2004, Rodriguez lent her voice to the video game Halo 2, playing a Marine.[15] She also provided the voice of Liz Ricarro in the Cartoon Network series IGPX.[16] From 2005 to 2006, she played tough cop Ana Lucia Cortez[17] on the television series Lost during the show's second season (the character's first appearance was a flashback during the first season's finale, "Exodus: Part 1"), and returned for a cameo in the second episode of the show's fifth season, "The Lie", in 2009. She returned again in the penultimate episode of the series, "What They Died For", in 2010. In 2006, Rodriguez was featured in her own episode of G4's show Icons.[18]
In 2008, Rodriguez appeared in Battle in Seattle.[19] In 2009, she appeared in Fast & Furious, the fourth installment of the The Fast and the Furious film series.[20][21] Later that year, Rodriguez starred in James Cameron's high-budget sci-fi adventure film Avatar, which became the highest-grossing film in history and Rodriguez's most successful film to date. She has expressed interest in returning for the film's two sequels.[22][23] In 2009, Rodriguez also starred in Trópico de Sangre, an independent film based on the Dominican Republic's historic Mirabal sisters.[24][25]



 Michelle Rodriguez (left) and Aaron Eckhart (right), along with director Jonathan Liebesman at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International
In 2010, Rodriguez appeared in Robert Rodriguez's Machete. The film received mostly positive reviews and earned $44 million at the box office.[26] In 2011, she appeared with Aaron Eckhart in the science fiction film Battle: Los Angeles which grossed over $200 million in the worldwide box office. As of July 2010, Rodriguez's films have grossed $1,272,734,719 in the United States and $3,686,521,043 worldwide.[27] In 2012, she returned to play the good clone and bad clone of Rain Ocampo in Resident Evil: Retribution. In 2013, she reprised her role as Letty Ortiz in Fast & Furious 6. In the same year, Rodriguez will appear in Robert Rodriguez's film Machete Kills.
Typecast[edit]
Following her debut in Girlfight, Rodriguez has consistently portrayed tough and tomboyish characters who operate in traditional male fields such as the police force or armed forces, and who usually die during the course of the story. Rodriguez says that she does not mind the typecasting, and in fact, is somewhat responsible for it:[28]
"Oh man, I was typecast the minute I did a film called Girlfight years ago. You allow yourself to be typecast. If I decided I didn't want to be typecast tomorrow, I'd just do an indie film where I play some poor girl who goes through some excruciating experience and win myself an award for crying or being raped. But at the end of the day, I'm not in it for the acting. I only wanna be someone I respect or someone that I consider interesting or fun. I'm here to entertain people and make a statement about female empowerment and strength, and that's what I've done for the last 10 years. I pigeonholed myself and I put myself in that box by saying no to everything else that came on my plate. Saying no to this, no to that, and eventually I just got left with the strong chick that's always being killed, and there's nothing wrong with that."
Notable rankings[edit]
Several times over the course of her career, she has been ranked in Stuff magazine's "102 Sexiest Women In The World", Maxim's "100 Sexiest Women", and People en Español's "50 Más Bellos", and was ranked No.74 in FHM's "100 Sexiest Women in the World 2009".
Writing[edit]
Rodriguez is currently working on two screenplays. One is a family film based on a concept which she describes as "a 2012 story about purity and animals and children",[29] and the other is a revision of an American remake of the 1997 German film Bandits which she describes as a film "about four girls who break out of jail and get chased across the country by the feds and by this MTV-like representative".[30]
Personal life[edit]
She has ten siblings and half-siblings. She was partly raised by her devoutly religious maternal grandmother, and was brought up a Jehovah's Witness (her mother's religion), although she has since abandoned the faith.[31][32] A DNA test of Rodriguez, performed by the television program Finding Your Roots, found that her ancestry is 72.4% European, 21.3% African, and 6.3% Native American.[33] She also stated on the show that there was some racial conflict between her families, since her Puerto Rican father was light-skinned and her Dominican mother had a dark complexion.
Relationships[edit]



 Rodriguez in December 2009
In early 2000, Rodriguez broke off a near engagement to a Muslim boyfriend, citing opposition to religious requests he made of her.[34] She has since dated or reportedly been linked with her Fast and the Furious co-star Vin Diesel,[35] and S.W.A.T. co-star Olivier Martinez.[36][37]
In July 2006, Rodriguez told Cosmopolitan magazine that she was not a lesbian, but had "experimented with both sexes".[38] In November 2006, her openly bisexual Bloodrayne co-star Kristanna Loken made comments to The Advocate that were widely interpreted and reported by the media as an admission that the two were in a relationship, though the relationship was never officially confirmed by either actress.[39]
In June 2007, the lesbian magazine Curve ran a cover story that claimed Rodriguez to be bisexual.[40] Rodriguez criticized the magazine for this, asserting that the magazine "put words in her mouth".[41] She again stated that she was not a lesbian in a November 2008 interview in the Dominican women's magazine Cayena.[42]
Legal issues[edit]
In March 2002, Rodriguez was arrested for assault after getting into a fight with her roommate.[43] The charges were later dropped after the roommate declined to press the allegations in court.[44] In November 2003, Rodriguez went to court to face eight misdemeanor charges based on two driving incidents including a hit and run and DUI.[45] In June 2004, Rodriguez pleaded no contest in Los Angeles to three of the charges: hit and run, drunken driving, and driving with a suspended license.[46] She went to jail for 48 hours, performed community service at the morgues of two New York hospitals, completed a three-month alcohol program, and was placed on probation for three years.[47]
In 2005, while filming Lost in Hawaii, Rodriguez was pulled over by Honolulu police multiple times; she was cited for driving at 83 mph (134 km/h) in a 55 mph (89 km/h) zone on Oahu on November 1, and was fined $357. She paid a $300 fine for driving 90 mph (140 km/h) in a 35 mph (56 km/h) zone on October 20, and was fined $197 for going 80 mph (130 km/h) in a 50 mph (80 km/h) zone on August 24.[48]
On December 1, 2005, Rodriguez was pulled over and arrested for driving under the influence.[49] Rodriguez pleaded not guilty when arraigned,[50] but on the day of her trial in April 2006, she pleaded guilty to one charge of driving under the influence. She chose to pay a $500 fine and spend five days in jail instead of doing 240 hours of community service.[46] Rodriguez cited her high doses of allergy-relieving steroids as part of the reason for her erratic behavior.[51] Because the Kailua incident was a violation of her Los Angeles probation, Rodriguez was sentenced to 60 days in jail, a 30 day alcohol rehabilitation program and another 30 days of community service, including work for Mothers Against Drunk Driving, by a judge in Los Angeles on May 1, 2006.[52] Because of overcrowding, she was released from jail on the same day she entered. She wrote about the experience on her blog.[53]
In September 2007, Rodriguez allegedly violated her probation by not completing her community service and not following an alcohol education program. It was reported that Rodriguez originally submitted a document stating she performed community service on September 5, 2006, but it was later confirmed she was actually in New York City that day. Her lawyer claimed it was a clerical error.[54] On October 10, 2007, following a hearing, she was sentenced to 180 days jail time after agreeing to admit to violating her probation. She was expected to spend the full 180-day term in jail, as she had been deemed ineligible for work furloughs and house arrest.[55] However, after turning herself in to begin the jail term at the Century Regional Detention Facility located in Lynwood, California, on December 23, 2007,[56] Rodriguez was released eighteen days later on January 9, 2008, due to overcrowding.[57]
Filmography[edit]
Film[edit]

Year
Title
Role
Notes

2000 Girlfight Diana Guzman Deauville Film Festival Prize for Best Female Performance
Independent Spirit Award for Best Debut Performance
National Board of Review Award for Best Breakthrough Performance by an Actress
Gotham Award for Breakthrough Performance
Las Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Female Newcomer
 Nominated – Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Most Promising Newcomer
 Nominated – Las Vegas Film Critics Society Award for Best Actress
 Nominated – Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Cinematic Debut/Breakthrough
 Nominated – Chlotrudis Award for Best Actress
 Nominated – Black Reel Award: Best Actress
 Nominated – ALMA Award for Outstanding Latino Cast in a Feature Film
2001 The Fast and the Furious Leticia "Letty" Ortiz Nominated – ALMA Award for Best Actress in Film
2001 3 A.M. Salgado Nominated – ALMA Award for Outstanding Actor/Actress in a Made for Television Movie or Miniseries
2002 Blue Crush Eden Nominated – MTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Team (with Kate Bosworth and Sanoe Lake)
2002 Resident Evil Rain Ocampo 
2003 S.W.A.T. Officer Chris Sanchez Imagen Foundation Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Film
2004 Control Teresa 
2005 BloodRayne Katarin 
2006 The Breed Nicki 
2007 Battle in Seattle Lou 
2008 Cats: The Movie Jujube Voice
2008 Gardens of the Night Lucy 
2009 Fast & Furious Leticia "Letty" Ortiz Nominated – ALMA Award for Actress in a Film
2009 Trópico de Sangre Minerva Mirabal 
2009 Avatar Captain Trudy Chacon 
2010 Machete Luz / Shé 
2011 Battle: Los Angeles Technical Sergeant Elana Santos Nominated – ALMA Award for Favorite Movie Actress-Drama/Adventure
2011 Citizen Jane Charlotte Jane Foster 
2011 Fast Five Leticia "Letty" Ortiz Cameo; picture only
2012 Resident Evil: Retribution Rain Ocampo[58] 
2013 InAPPropriate Comedy Harriet 
2013 Fast & Furious 6 Leticia "Letty" Ortiz Nominated - Teen Choice Award for Choice Movie Actress: Action
2013 Machete Kills Luz / Shé 
2013 Turbo Paz 
2013 Unity  
2014 Fast and Furious 7 Leticia "Letty" Ortiz 

Television[edit]

Year
Title
Role
Notes

2005 Punk'd Herself 1 episode
2005 Immortal Grand Prix Liz Ricarro 26 episodes
2005–2010 Lost Ana Lucia Cortez 26 episodes
ALMA Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Television Series
Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series
 Nominated – Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress on Television
2007 Adventures in Voice Acting Herself 1 episode
2010
Top Gear
 Herself 1 episode
2011 Curiosity Herself Episode: "Alien Invasion, Are We Ready?"
2013 SpongeBob SquarePants  
2013 American Dad Jenny Smith  Voice

Video games[edit]

Year
Title
Role
Notes

2003 True Crime: Streets of LA Rosie Velasco 
2003 Driv3r Calita 
2004 Halo 2 Marine 
2009 James Cameron's Avatar: The Game Captain Trudy Chacon 
2012 Call of Duty: Black Ops II Strike Force Soldier 

References[edit]
1.^ "Official Site Biography". Michelle-Rodriguez.com. Retrieved 2007-02-07.
2.^ Rebecca Flint Marx (2008). "Michelle Rodriguez:Biography". MSN. Retrieved 2008-08-27.
3.^ Angie Romero (2009-04-15). "Michelle Rodriguez: "I Feel Like I'm Being Born Again"". Latina. Retrieved 2010-11-13.
4.^ "Michelle Rodriguez Biography (1978–)". Film Reference. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
5.^ Stated on Finding Your Roots with Henry Louis Gates, Jr., May 20, 2012, PBS
6.^ "Michelle Rodriguez- Biography". Yahoo! Movies. Retrieved October 13, 2012.
7.^ Raphael, Amy (2009-04-11). "Amy Raphael interviews Michelle Rodriguez". The Guardian (UK). Retrieved 2010-11-13.
8.^ "Michelle Rodriguez Official Biography". Archived from the original on 2008-05-16. Retrieved 2008-06-06.
9.^ "A Conversation About "Girlfight"; October 27, 2000". Charlierose.com. 2000-10-27. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
10.^ FilmFestivals.com. ""Girlfight" a Winner". Retrieved 2010-12-23.
11.^ FilmFestivals.com. ""Girlfight" a Winner". Retrieved 2010-12-23.
12.^ IFP Gotham Independent Film Awards. "Gothan Awards Recipients". Retrieved 2010-12-23.
13.^ Los Angeles Times (2000-01-30). "'Girlfight,' 'Count on Me' Tie at Sundance". Retrieved 2010-12-23.
14.^ "S.W.A.T.". TV Guide. Retrieved 2010-12-23.
15.^ "Interview: Michelle Rodriguez in Halo 2". Gamestar. Retrieved 2010-12-23.
16.^ "The Ghost Cast & Crew List". The Big Cartoon Database. Retrieved 2010-12-23.
17.^ Itzkoff, Dave (2005-11-15). "She loves acting tough on 'Lost'". Daily News. Retrieved 2010-12-23.
18.^ "ICONS: Michelle Rodriguez Episode #6004". G4 Media. 2006-06-24. Retrieved 2010-12-23.
19.^ "Battle in Seattle". Miami Herald Media. Retrieved 2010-12-23.
20.^ Itzkoff, Dave (2009-03-26). "What a Stunt! Can They Do It Again?". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-12-23.
21.^ ""Universal Shuffles 2009 Schedule"; December 10, 2008". Sfluxe.com. 2008-12-10. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
22.^ Alasdair Wilkins (2010-12-28). "Michelle Rodriguez wants to return for Avatar 2". io9.com.
23.^ "Michelle Rodriguez Talks Avatar 2". Eonline.com.
24.^ IMDB. "Tropico de Sangre". Retrieved 2010-12-23.
25.^ El Tiempo. "La historia de las hermanas Mirabal" (in Spanish). Retrieved 2010-12-23.
26.^ "Get Your Grindhouse Fix With a New Poster from Robert Rodriguez's Machete". BloodyDisgusting.
27.^ "Michelle Rodriguez – Box Office Data Movie Star". The-numbers.com. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
28.^ "Michelle Rodriquez Responds". Hollywoodnews.com. 2010-07-26.
29.^ "Michelle Rodriguez Writing Kids Film"; September 18, 2008
30.^ Rodriguez Talks Modern Warfare and Dodging Earthquakes"; December 14, 2009[dead link]
31.^ "Michelle Rodriguez: in role after role, she has kicked the stereotype of the token female in the teeth, leaving an imprint all her own.". September 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
32.^ "The Religious Affiliation of Actress Michelle Rodriguez". World Religions. 2005-08-11. Retrieved 2007-12-25.
33.^ "Adrian Grenier, Michelle Rodriguez, and Linda Chavez (@ the 47:30 mark)". PBS. March 22, 2012.
34.^ "Rodriguez Turned Down Muslim Marriage". 2008-06-06.
35.^ Wloszczyna, Susan (2002-08-06). "Vin Diesel, in high gear". Gannett. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
36.^ "Minogue's Martinez linked to Rodriguez". Contact Music. 2008-05-02. Retrieved 2005-03-03.
37.^ Kent, Paul (2008-05-02). "Kylie and Oli on rocks again". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2005-01-29.
38.^ "LOST girl" (reprint). Cosmopolitan. 2006-04-16. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
39.^ Kort, Michele (2006-11-15). "Michelle & Kristanna in love!". The Advocate (PlanetOut Inc.). Retrieved 2007-02-04.
40.^ Michelle Rodriguez 'Curve' cover controversial Retrieved May 2, 2008.
41.^ "Michelle Rodriguez Blogs About Curve Article". May 2007. Retrieved 2009-07-04.
42.^ "Michelle Rodríguez: "RD no debería tener esa mentalidad tan gubernamental"". Cayena. Retrieved 2008-11-22.
43.^ Grossberg, Josh (2002-03-20). ""Girlfight" Star Busted for Girl Fight". E! (Comcast). Retrieved 2007-02-04.
44.^ Grossberg, Josh (2002-04-08). ""Girlfight" Star Off the Hook". E!. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
45.^ Haberman, Lia (2003-11-20). "Rodriguez: Way 2 Fast 2 Furious". E!. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
46.^ a b ""Lost" actress chooses jail over service". Associated Press. 2006-04-26. Archived from the original on 2007-10-13. Retrieved 2006-07-21.
47.^ Hall, Sarah (2005-12-14). "Rodriguez: Fast and Furious Driver". E!. Retrieved 2007-02-04.
48.^ "Michelle Rodriguez settles two traffic cases". Associated Press. 2005-12-14. Retrieved July 21, 2006.
49.^ "Two 'Lost' stars charged with drunken driving". Associated Press. 2005-12-02. Retrieved 2006-07-21.
50.^ Errico, Marcus (2005-12-29). ""Lost" Stars Arraigned for DUIs". E!. Retrieved 2006-07-21.
51.^ Finn, Natalie (2006-05-22). "More Jail Time for Michelle Rodriguez". E!. Retrieved 2006-07-29.
52.^ Lee, Ken and Silverman, Stephen p. (2006-05-22). "Michelle Rodriguez Gets 60 Days in Jail". Retrieved 2007-02-04.
53.^ ""Michelle Rodriguez Blogs About Arrest and Conviction"; February 16, 2007". Michelle-rodriguez.com. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
54.^ Lee, Ken (2007-10-27). "Michelle Rodriguez Sentenced to Six Months in Jail wow". Retrieved 2008-02-10.
55.^ Finn, Natalie (2007-10-10). "Slammer Time for Michelle Rodriguez". eonline.com.
56.^ "Former 'Lost' star Michelle Rodriguez reports for 6-month jail term in California". Associated Press. 2007-12-24. Retrieved 2007-12-25.[dead link]
57.^ "Michelle Rodriguez out of jail after 18 days". MSNBC. 2008-01-10. Retrieved 2008-02-01.
58.^ Miska, Brad (September 22, 2011). "Michelle Rodriguez Returning for Some 'Retribution'!". Bloody Disgusting. The Collective. Archived from the original on September 23, 2011. Retrieved September 23, 2011.
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Michelle Rodriguez
 Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Michelle Rodriguez
Official website
Michelle Rodriguez at the Internet Movie Database
Michelle Rodriguez on Twitter

[hide]
­v·
 ­t·
 ­e
 
Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series (2000–2009)


­The West Wing, season 1/season 2 (2000): Hill; Janney; Kelly; Lowe; Moloney; Schiff; Sheen; Spencer; Whitford
 ­The West Wing, season 2/season 3 (2001): Hill; Janney; Lowe; Moloney; Schiff; Sheen; Spencer; Whitford
 ­Six Feet Under, season 2 (2002): Ambrose; Conroy; Griffiths; Hall; Krause; Rodríguez; St. Patrick
 ­Six Feet Under, season 3 (2003): Ambrose; Conroy; Foster; Griffiths; Hall; Krause; Macdissi; Machado; Rodríguez; St. Patrick; Taylor; Wilson
 ­CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, season 4/season 5 (2004): Dourdan; Eads; Fox; Guilfoyle; Hall; Helgenberger; Petersen; Szmanda
 ­Lost, season 1/season 2 (2005): Akinnuoye-Agbaje; Andrews; de Ravin; Fox; Garcia; Grace; Holloway; Kelley; D. D. Kim; Y. Kim; Lilly; Monaghan; O'Quinn; Perrineau; Rodriguez; Somerhalder; Watros
 ­Grey's Anatomy, season 2/season 3 (2006): Chambers; Dane; Dempsey; Heigl; Knight; Oh; Pickens; Pompeo; Ramirez; Walsh; Washington; Wilson
 ­The Sopranos, season 6 (2007): Antonacci; Bracco; Falco; Gandolfini; Grimaldi; Iler; Imperioli; Nascarella; Schirripa; Servitto; Sigler; Sirico; Turturro; Van Zandt; Vincent
 ­Mad Men, season 2 (2008): Batt; Brie; Gladis; Hamm; Hart; Hendricks; Jones; Kartheiser; Moses; Moss; Shipka; Slattery; Sommer; Staton
 ­Mad Men, season 3 (2009): Alemanni; Batt; Gilmore; Gladis; Hamm; Harris; Hendricks; Jones; Kartheiser; Morse; Moss; Shipka; Slattery; Sommer; Stanley; Staton
 

­Complete list·
 ­(1994–1999)·
 ­(2000–2009)·
 ­(2010–present)
 


Authority control
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