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Jehovah's Witnesses

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Jehovah's Witnesses
Watchtower Bible & Tract Society (world headquarters).jpg
International headquarters in Brooklyn, New York
Classification
Restorationist
 (Christian primitivism)
Organizational structure
Hierarchical
Geographical areas
Worldwide
Founder
Charles Taze Russell
Origin
1870s: Bible Student movement
 1931: Jehovah's witnesses
Pennsylvania and New York, US
Branched from
Bible Student movement
Congregations
111,719
Members
7.78 million
Official websitewww.jw.org
Statistics from 2013 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses[1]

Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity.[2] The organization reports worldwide membership of over 7.78 million adherents involved in evangelism,[3] convention attendance of over 12 million, and annual Memorial attendance of over 19 million.[4][5] They are directed by the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, a group of elders in Brooklyn, New York, that establishes all doctrines.[6][7][8] Jehovah's Witnesses' beliefs are based on their interpretations of the Bible[9][10] and they prefer to use their own translation, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.[11][12][13][14] They believe that the destruction of the present world system at Armageddon is imminent, and that the establishment of God's kingdom on earth is the only solution for all problems faced by humanity.[15]
The group emerged from the Bible Student movement—founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell with the formation of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society—with significant organizational and doctrinal changes under the leadership of Joseph Franklin Rutherford.[16][17] The name Jehovah's witnesses, based on Isaiah 43:10–12,[18] was adopted in 1931 to distinguish themselves from other Bible Student groups and symbolize a break with the legacy of Russell's traditions.
Jehovah's Witnesses are best known for their door-to-door preaching, distributing literature such as The Watchtower and Awake!, and refusing military service and blood transfusions. They consider use of the name Jehovah vital for proper worship. They reject Trinitarianism, inherent immortality of the soul, and hellfire, which they consider to be unscriptural doctrines. They do not observe Christmas, Easter, birthdays, or other holidays and customs they consider to have pagan origins incompatible with Christianity. Adherents commonly refer to their body of beliefs as "the truth" and consider themselves to be "in the truth".[19][20] They consider secular society to be morally corrupt and under the influence of Satan, and most limit their social interaction with non-Witnesses.[21] Congregational disciplinary actions include disfellowshipping, their term for formal expulsion and shunning.[22] Baptized individuals who formally leave are considered disassociated and are also shunned. Disfellowshipped and disassociated individuals may eventually be reinstated if deemed repentant.
The religion's position regarding conscientious objection to military service and refusal to salute national flags has brought it into conflict with some governments. Consequently, some Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted and their activities are banned or restricted in some countries. Persistent legal challenges by Jehovah's Witnesses have influenced legislation related to civil rights in several countries.[23]

Contents
  [hide] 1 History 1.1 Background (1870–1916)
1.2 Reorganization (1917–1942)
1.3 Continued development (1942–present)
2 Organization 2.1 Funding
3 Beliefs 3.1 Sources of doctrine
3.2 Jehovah and Jesus Christ
3.3 Satan
3.4 Life after death
3.5 God's kingdom
3.6 Eschatology
4 Practices 4.1 Worship
4.2 Evangelism
4.3 Ethics and morality
4.4 Disciplinary action
4.5 Separateness
4.6 Rejection of blood transfusions
5 Demographics
6 Sociological analysis
7 Opposition 7.1 Persecution
7.2 Legal challenges
8 Criticism 8.1 Suppression of free speech and thought
8.2 New World Translation
8.3 Failed predictions
8.4 Handling of sexual abuse cases
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links

History
Part of a series on
Jehovah's Witnesses

Overview

Organizational structure
Governing Body
Watch Tower Bible
 and Tract Society
Corporations
 
History
Bible Student movement
Leadership dispute
Splinter groups
Doctrinal development
Unfulfilled predicitions
 
Demographics
By country
 

Beliefs·
 Practices
 
Salvation·
 Eschatology

The 144,000
Faithful and discreet slave
Hymns·
 God's name
 
Blood·
 Discipline

 
Literature

The Watchtower·
 Awake!

New World Translation
List of publications
Bibliography
 
Teaching programs

Kingdom Hall·
 Gilead School

 
People

Watch Tower presidents

W. H. Conley·
 C. T. Russell
 
J. F. Rutherford·
 N. H. Knorr
 
F. W. Franz·
 M. G. Henschel

D. A. Adams
 
Formative influences

William Miller·
 Henry Grew
 
George Storrs·
 N. H. Barbour

 
Notable former members

Raymond Franz·
 Olin Moyle

 
Opposition

Criticism·
 Persecution
 
Supreme Court cases
 by country
 
v·
 t·
 e
   
Main article: History of Jehovah's Witnesses
Background (1870–1916)

 

Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916)
In 1870, Charles Taze Russell and others formed an independent group in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to study the Bible.[24] During the course of his ministry Russell disputed many beliefs of mainstream Christianity including immortality of the soul, hellfire, predestination, the fleshly return of Jesus Christ, the Trinity, and the burning up of the world.[25] In 1876 Russell met Nelson H. Barbour; later that year they jointly produced the book Three Worlds, which combined restitutionist views with end time prophecy. The book taught that God's dealings with humanity were divided dispensationally, each ending with a "harvest", that Christ had returned as an invisible spirit being in 1874[25] inaugurating the "harvest of the Gospel age", and that 1914 would mark the end of a 2520-year period called "the Gentile Times",[26] at which time world society would be replaced by the full establishment of God's kingdom on earth.[27][28][29] Beginning in 1878 they jointly edited a religious journal, Herald of the Morning.[30] In June 1879 the two split over doctrinal differences and in July Russell began publishing the magazine Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence,[31] stating that its purpose was to demonstrate the world was in "the last days", and that a new age of earthly and human restitution under the reign of Christ was imminent.[32]
From 1879 Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible topically. Thirty congregations were founded, and during 1879 and 1880 Russell visited each to provide the format he recommended for conducting meetings.[33] As congregations continued to form during Russell's ministry they each remained self-administrative, functioning under the congregationalist style of church governance.[34][35] In 1881 Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was presided over by William Henry Conley and in 1884 Charles Taze Russell incorporated the society as a non-profit business to distribute tracts and Bibles.[36][37][38] By about 1900 Russell had organized thousands of part- and full-time colporteurs,[31] and was appointing foreign missionaries and establishing branch offices. By the 1910s, Russell's organization maintained nearly a hundred "pilgrims", or traveling preachers.[39] Russell engaged in significant global publishing efforts during his ministry,[40][41][42] and by 1912 he was the most distributed Christian author in the United States.[41][43]
Russell moved the Watch Tower Society's headquarters to Brooklyn, New York, in 1909, combining printing and corporate offices with a house of worship; volunteers were housed in a nearby residence he named Bethel. He identified the religious movement as "Bible Students", and more formally as the International Bible Students Association.[44] By 1910, about 50,000 people worldwide were associated with the movement[45] and congregations re-elected him annually as their "pastor".[46] Russell died October 31, 1916 at the age of 64 while returning from a ministerial speaking tour.[47]
Reorganization (1917–1942)

 

Joseph F. Rutherford (1869–1942)
In January 1917, the Watch Tower Society's legal representative, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, was elected as its next president. His election was disputed, and members of the Board of Directors accused him of acting in an autocratic and secretive manner.[48][49] The divisions between his supporters and opponents triggered a major turnover of members over the next decade.[50][51] In June 1917 he released The Finished Mystery as a seventh volume of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures series. The book, published as the posthumous work of Russell, was a compilation of his commentaries on the Bible books of Ezekiel and Revelation, plus numerous additions by Bible Students Clayton Woodworth and George Fisher.[52][53][54][55] It strongly criticized Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in the Great War.[56] As a result, Watch Tower Society directors were jailed for sedition under the Espionage Act in 1918 and members were subjected to mob violence; charges against the directors were dropped in 1920.[57]
Rutherford centralized organizational control of the Watch Tower Society. In 1919 he instituted the appointment of a director in each congregation, and a year later all members were instructed to report their weekly preaching activity to the Brooklyn headquarters.[58] At an international convention held at Cedar Point, Ohio, in September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching.[59] Significant changes in doctrine and administration were regularly introduced during Rutherford's twenty-five years as president, including the 1920 announcement that the Jewish patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year Kingdom.[60][61][62] Disappointed by the changes, tens of thousands of defections occurred during the first half of Rutherford's tenure, leading to the formation of several Bible Student organizations independent of the Watch Tower Society,[63][64] most of which still exist.[65] By mid-1919 as many as one in seven of Russell-era Bible Students had ceased their association with the Society, and as many as two-thirds by the end of the 1920s.[66][67][68][69][70]
On July 26, 1931, at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, Rutherford introduced the new name—Jehovah's witnesses—based on Isaiah 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith Jehovah, and my servant whom I have chosen"—which was adopted by resolution. The name was chosen to distinguish his group of Bible Students from other independent groups that had severed ties with the Society, as well as symbolize the instigation of new outlooks and the promotion of fresh evangelizing methods.[71][72][73] In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of locally elected elders and in 1938 introduced what he called a "theocratic" (literally, God-ruled) organizational system, under which appointments in congregations worldwide were made from the Brooklyn headquarters.[58]
From 1932 it was taught that the "little flock" of 144,000 would not be the only people to survive Armageddon. Rutherford explained that in addition to the 144,000 "anointed" who would be resurrected—or transferred at death—to live in heaven to rule over earth with Christ, a separate class of members, the "great multitude", would live in a paradise restored on earth; from 1935, new converts to the movement were considered part of that class.[74][75] By the mid-1930s, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: parousía), his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" were each moved to 1914.[76]
As their interpretations of scripture developed, Witness publications decreed that saluting national flags is a form of idolatry, which led to a new outbreak of mob violence and government opposition in the United States, Canada, Germany, and other countries.[77][78]
Worldwide membership of Jehovah's Witnesses reached 113,624 in 5,323 congregations by the time of Rutherford's death in January 1942.[79][80]
Continued development (1942–present)
See also: Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine and Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses

 

 Nathan H. Knorr (1905-1977)
Nathan Knorr was appointed as third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1942. Knorr commissioned a new translation of the Bible, the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures, the full version of which was released in 1961. He organized large international assemblies, instituted new training programs for members, and expanded missionary activity and branch offices throughout the world.[81] Knorr's presidency was also marked by an increasing use of explicit instructions guiding Witnesses in their lifestyle and conduct, and a greater use of congregational judicial procedures to enforce a strict moral code.[82][83]
From 1966, Witness publications and convention talks built anticipation of the possibility that Christ's thousand-year reign might begin in late 1975[84][85] or shortly thereafter.[86][87][88][89] The number of baptisms increased significantly, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974. By 1975 the number of active members exceeded two million. Membership declined during the late 1970s after expectations for 1975 were proved wrong.[90][91][92][93] Watch Tower Society literature did not state dogmatically that 1975 would definitely mark the end,[86] but in 1980 the Watch Tower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding that year.[94][95]
The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments made from headquarters[96] (and later, also by branch committees). In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watch Tower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body.[97] Reflecting these organizational changes, publications of Jehovah's Witnesses began using the capitalized name, Jehovah's Witnesses.[98] Since Knorr's death in 1977, the position of president has been occupied by Frederick Franz (1977–1992) and Milton Henschel (1992–2000), both members of the Governing Body, and since 2000 by Don A. Adams, not a member of the Governing Body.
Organization
Main article: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses are organized under a hierarchical arrangement, which their leadership calls a "theocratic organization", reflecting their belief that it is God's "visible organization" on earth.[99][100][101] The organization is led by the Governing Body—an all-male group that varies in size, but since November 2012 has comprised eight members,[note 1] all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life—based in the Watch Tower Society's Brooklyn headquarters.[102][103] There is no election for membership; new members are selected by the existing body.[104] Until late 2012, the Governing Body described itself as the representative[105][106] and "spokesman" for God's "faithful and discreet slave class" (approximately 10,000 self-professed "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses).[107][108] At the 2012 Annual Meeting of the Watch Tower Society, the "faithful and discreet slave" was defined as referring to the Governing Body only.[109] The Governing Body directs several committees that are responsible for administrative functions, including publishing, assembly programs and evangelizing activities.[101] It appoints all branch committee members and traveling overseers, after they have been recommended by local branches, with traveling overseers supervising districts or circuits of congregations within their jurisdictions. Branch offices appoint local elders and ministerial servants, and may appoint regional committees for matters such as Kingdom Hall construction or disaster relief.[110]
Each congregation has a body of appointed unpaid male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work, and creating "judicial committees" to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases involving sexual misconduct or doctrinal breaches.[111] New elders are appointed by branch offices after recommendation by the existing body of elders. Ministerial servants—appointed in a similar manner to elders—fulfill clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.[101] Witnesses do not use elder as a title to signify a formal clergy-laity division,[112] though elders may employ ecclesiastical privilege such as confession of sins.[113]
Baptism is a requirement for being considered a member of Jehovah's Witnesses. Jehovah's Witnesses do not practice infant baptism,[114] and previous baptisms performed by other denominations are not considered valid.[115] Individuals undergoing baptism must affirm publicly that dedication and baptism identify them "as one of Jehovah’s Witnesses in association with God's spirit-directed organization,"[115] though Witness publications say baptism symbolizes personal dedication to God and not "to a man, work or organization."[116][117] Watch Tower Society publications emphasize the need for members to be obedient and loyal to Jehovah and to "his organization,"[118][119][note 2] stating that individuals must remain part of it to receive God's favor and to survive Armageddon.[120][121][122]
Funding
Funding for all activities of the organization is provided by donations, primarily from members. There is no tithing or collection.[94][123] In 2001 Newsday listed the Watch Tower Society as one of New York's forty richest corporations, with revenues exceeding $950 million.[124] The organization reported for the same year that it "spent over 70.9 millions dollars in caring for special pioneers, missionaries, and traveling overseers in their field service assignments."[125][note 3]
Beliefs
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Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs
Sources of doctrine
Jehovah's Witnesses believe their religion is a restoration of first-century Christianity.[126] Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, which assumes responsibility for interpreting and applying scripture.[51][127][128] The Watch Tower Society does not issue any single, comprehensive "statement of faith", but prefers to express its doctrinal position in a variety of ways in its publications.[129] Its publications teach that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose,[130][131][132][133] and that such enlightenment results from the application of reason and study,[134] the guidance of the holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels.[135] The Society also teaches that members of the Governing Body are helped by the holy spirit to discern "deep truths", which are then considered by the entire Governing Body before it makes doctrinal decisions.[136] The religion's leadership, while disclaiming divine inspiration and infallibility,[137] is said to provide "divine guidance"[138] through its teachings described as "based on God's Word thus ... not from men, but from Jehovah."[139][140]
The entire Protestant canon of scripture is considered the inspired, inerrant word of God.[141] Jehovah's Witnesses consider the Bible to be scientifically and historically accurate and reliable[142] and interpret much of it literally, but accept parts of it as symbolic.[143] They consider the Bible to be the final authority for all their beliefs,[144] although sociologist Andrew Holden's ethnographic study of the religion concluded that pronouncements of the Governing Body, through Watch Tower Society publications, carry almost as much weight as the Bible.[145] Regular personal Bible reading is frequently recommended; Witnesses are discouraged from formulating doctrines and "private ideas" reached through Bible research independent of Watch Tower Society publications, and are cautioned against reading other religious literature.[146][147][148] Adherents are told to have "complete confidence" in the leadership, avoid skepticism about what is taught in the Watch Tower Society's literature, and "not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to Bible understanding."[149][150][151][152] The religion makes no provision for members to criticize or contribute to official teachings[153] and all Witnesses must abide by its doctrines and organizational requirements.[154]
Jehovah and Jesus Christ
Jehovah's Witnesses emphasize the use of what they consider to be God's name, represented in the Old Testament by the Tetragrammaton.[155][156] In English they prefer to use the name Jehovah.[157] They believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the creator of all things, and the "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him, and that he is not part of a Trinity;[158] consequently, the religion places more emphasis on God than on Christ.[159][160] They believe that the holy spirit is God's power or "active force" rather than a person.[161]

 

 The Tetragrammaton
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus is God's only direct creation, that everything else was created by means of Christ, and that the initial unassisted act of creation uniquely identifies Jesus as God's "only-begotten Son".[162] Jesus served as a redeemer and a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of humanity.[163] They believe Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than the traditional cross.[164] They believe that references in the Bible to the Archangel Michael, Abaddon (Apollyon), and the Word all refer to Jesus.[165] Jesus is considered to be the only intercessor and high priest between God and humanity, and appointed by God as the king and judge of his kingdom.[166] His role as a mediator (referred to in 1 Timothy 2:5) is applied to the 'anointed' class, though the 'other sheep' are said to also benefit from the arrangement.[167]

Satan
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan was originally a perfect angel who developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship. Satan caused Adam and Eve to disobey God, and humanity subsequently became participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.[168] Other angels who sided with Satan became demons.
Jehovah's Witnesses teach that Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven after October 1, 1914,[169] at which point the end times began. Witnesses believe that Satan is the ruler of the current world order,[168] that human society is influenced and misled by Satan and his demons, and that they are a cause of human suffering. They believe that human governments are controlled by Satan,[170] but that he does not directly control each human ruler.[171]
Life after death
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and salvation
Jehovah's Witnesses believe death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. There is no Hell of fiery torment; Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed the common grave.[172] Jehovah's Witnesses consider the soul to be a life or a living body that can die.[173] Watch Tower Society publications teach that humanity is in a sinful state,[173] from which release is only possible by means of Jesus' shed blood as a ransom, or atonement, for the sins of humankind.[174]
Witnesses believe that a "little flock" go to heaven, but that the hope for life after death for the majority of "other sheep" involves being resurrected by God to a cleansed earth after Armageddon. They interpret Revelation 14:1–5 to mean that the number of Christians going to heaven is limited to exactly 144,000, who will rule with Jesus as kings and priests over earth.[175] Jehovah's Witnesses teach that only they meet scriptural requirements for surviving Armageddon, but that God is the final judge.[176][177][178] During Christ's millennial reign, most people who died prior to Armageddon will be resurrected with the prospect of living forever; they will be taught the proper way to worship God to prepare them for their final test at the end of the millennium.[179][180]
God's kingdom
Watch Tower Society publications teach that God's kingdom is a literal government in heaven, ruled by Jesus Christ and 144,000 Christians drawn from the earth.[181] The kingdom is viewed as the means by which God will accomplish his original purpose for the earth, transforming it into a paradise without sickness or death.[182] It is said to have been the focal point of Jesus' ministry on earth.[183] They believe the kingdom was established in heaven in 1914,[184] and that Jehovah's Witnesses serve as representatives of the kingdom on earth.[185][186]
Eschatology
Main article: Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses
A central teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses is that the current world era, or "system of things", entered the "last days" in 1914 and faces imminent destruction through intervention by God and Jesus Christ, leading to deliverance for those who worship God acceptably.[187] They consider all other present-day religions to be false, identifying them with "Babylon the Great", or the "harlot", of Revelation 17,[188] and believe that they will soon be destroyed by the United Nations, which they believe is represented in scripture by the scarlet-colored wild beast of Revelation chapter 17. This development will mark the beginning of the "great tribulation".[189] Satan will subsequently attack Jehovah's Witnesses, an action that will prompt God to begin the war of Armageddon, during which all forms of government and all people not counted as Christ's "sheep", or true followers, will be destroyed. After Armageddon, God will extend his heavenly kingdom to include earth, which will be transformed into a paradise similar to the Garden of Eden.[190] After Armageddon, most of those who had died before God's intervention will gradually be resurrected during "judgment day" lasting for one thousand years. This judgment will be based on their actions after resurrection rather than past deeds. At the end of the thousand years, a final test will take place when Satan is released to mislead perfect mankind. The end result will be a fully tested, glorified human race. Christ will then hand all authority back to God.[191]
Watch Tower Society publications teach that Jesus Christ began to rule in heaven as king of God's kingdom in October 1914, and that Satan was subsequently ousted from heaven to the earth, resulting in "woe" to humanity. They believe that Jesus rules invisibly, from heaven, perceived only as a series of "signs". They base this belief on a rendering of the Greek word parousia—usually translated as "coming" when referring to Christ—as "presence". They believe Jesus' presence includes an unknown period beginning with his inauguration as king in heaven in 1914, and ending when he comes to bring a final judgment against humans on earth. They thus depart from the mainstream Christian belief that the "second coming" of Matthew 24 refers to a single moment of arrival on earth to judge humans.[192][193]
Practices
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses practices
Worship

 

 Worship at a Kingdom Hall.
Meetings for worship and study are held at Kingdom Halls, which are typically functional in character, and do not contain religious symbols.[194] Witnesses are assigned to a congregation in whose "territory" they usually reside and attend weekly services they refer to as "meetings" as scheduled by congregation elders. The meetings are largely devoted to study of Watch Tower Society literature and the Bible. The format of the meetings is established by the religion's headquarters, and the subject matter for most meetings is the same worldwide.[194] Congregations meet for two sessions each week comprising five distinct meetings that total about three-and-a-half hours, typically gathering mid-week (three meetings) and on the weekend (two meetings). Prior to 2009, congregations met three times each week; these meetings were condensed, with the intention that members dedicate an evening for "family worship".[195][196] Gatherings are opened and closed with kingdom songs (hymns) and brief prayers. Each year, Witnesses from a number of congregations that form a "circuit" gather for one-day, and two-day assemblies. Several circuits meet once a year for a three-day "district convention", usually at rented stadiums or auditoriums. Their most important and solemn event is the commemoration of the "Lord's Evening Meal", or "Memorial of Christ's Death" on the date of the Jewish Passover.[197]
Evangelism

 

 Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their preaching from house to house.
See also: Jehovah's Witnesses publications
Jehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs, most notably by visiting people from house to house,[198][199][200] distributing literature published by the Watch Tower Society; some literature is available in 500 languages.[201] The objective is to start a regular Bible study with any person who is not already a member.[202] Once the course is completed, the individual is expected to become baptized as a member of the group.[203] Witnesses are told they are under a biblical command to engage in public preaching.[204][205] They are instructed to devote as much time as possible to their ministry and are required to submit an individual monthly "Field Service Report".[206][207] Baptized members who fail to submit a report every month are termed "irregular" and may be counseled by elders;[208][209] those who do not submit a report for six consecutive months are termed "inactive".[210]
Ethics and morality
Their views of morality reflect conservative Christian values. All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion if the individual is not deemed repentant;[211][212] homosexual activity is considered a serious sin, and same-sex marriages are forbidden. Abortion is considered murder.[213] Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling, drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden.[214] Drinking of alcoholic beverages is permitted in moderation.[213]
The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered to have authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous and legally registered.[215][216] Marrying a non-believer, or endorsing such a union, is strongly discouraged and carries religious sanctions.[217][218] Divorce is discouraged, and remarriage is forbidden unless a divorce is obtained on the grounds of adultery, termed "a scriptural divorce".[219] If a divorce is obtained for any other reason, remarriage is considered adulterous unless the prior spouse has died or is since considered to have committed fornication.[220] Extreme physical abuse, willful non-support of one's family, and what the religion terms "absolute endangerment of spirituality" are considered grounds for legal separation.[221][222]
Disciplinary action
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline
Formal discipline is administered by congregation elders. When a baptized member is accused of committing a serious sin—usually cases of sexual misconduct[111][223] or charges of apostasy for disputing the Watch Tower Society's doctrines[224][225]—a judicial committee is formed to determine guilt, provide help and possibly administer discipline. Disfellowshipping, a form of shunning, is the strongest form of discipline, administered to an offender deemed unrepentant.[226] Contact with disfellowshipped individuals is limited to direct family members living in the same home, and with congregation elders who may invite disfellowshipped persons to apply for reinstatement;[227][228] formal business dealings may continue if contractually or financially obliged.[229] Witnesses are taught that avoiding social and spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped individuals keeps the congregation free from immoral influence and that "losing precious fellowship with loved ones may help [the shunned individual] to come 'to his senses,' see the seriousness of his wrong, and take steps to return to Jehovah."[230] The practice of shunning may also serve to deter other members from dissident behavior.[231] Members who disassociate (formally resign) are described in Watch Tower Society literature as wicked and are also shunned.[232][233][234] Expelled individuals may eventually be reinstated to the congregation if deemed repentant by elders in the congregation in which the disfellowshipping was enforced.[235] Reproof is a lesser form of discipline given formally by a judicial committee to a baptized Witness who is considered repentant of serious sin; the reproved person temporarily loses conspicuous privileges of service, but suffers no restriction of social or spiritual fellowship.[236] Marking, a curtailing of social but not spiritual fellowship, is practiced if a baptized member persists in a course of action regarded as a violation of Bible principles but not a serious sin.[note 4]
Separateness
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and governments
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible condemns the mixing of religions, on the basis that there can only be one truth from God, and therefore reject interfaith and ecumenical movements.[237][238][239] They believe that only their religion represents true Christianity, and that other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will soon be destroyed.[240] Jehovah's Witnesses are taught that it is vital to remain "separate from the world." Watch Tower Society publications define the "world" as "the mass of mankind apart from Jehovah's approved servants" and teach that it is morally contaminated and ruled by Satan.[241][242][243] Witnesses are taught that association with "worldly" people presents a "danger" to their faith,[244] and are instructed to minimize social contact with non-members to better maintain their own standards of morality.[245][246][247][248]
Jehovah's Witnesses believe their highest allegiance belongs to God's kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government in heaven, with Christ as king. They remain politically neutral, do not seek public office, and are discouraged from voting, though individual members may participate in uncontroversial community improvement issues.[249][250] They do not celebrate religious holidays such as Christmas and Easter, nor do they observe birthdays, nationalistic holidays, or other celebrations they consider to honor people other than Jesus. They feel that these and many other customs have pagan origins or reflect a nationalistic or political spirit. Their position is that these traditional holidays reflect Satan's control over the world.[251][252][253] Witnesses are told that spontaneous giving at other times can help their children to not feel deprived of birthdays or other celebrations.[254]
They do not work in industries associated with the military, do not serve in the armed services,[255] and refuse national military service, which in some countries may result in their arrest and imprisonment.[256] They do not salute or pledge allegiance to flags or sing national anthems or patriotic songs.[257] Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as a worldwide brotherhood that transcends national boundaries and ethnic loyalties.[258][259] Sociologist Ronald Lawson has suggested the religion's intellectual and organizational isolation, coupled with the intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline and considerable persecution, has contributed to the consistency of its sense of urgency in its apocalyptic message.[260]
Rejection of blood transfusions
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions
Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood transfusions, which they consider a violation of God's law based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28, 29 and other scriptures.[261][262][263] Since 1961 the willing acceptance of a blood transfusion by an unrepentant member has been grounds for expulsion from the religion.[264][265] Watch Tower Society literature directs Witnesses to refuse blood transfusions, even in "a life-or-death situation".[266][267][268] Jehovah's Witnesses accept non-blood alternatives and other medical procedures in lieu of blood transfusions, and the Watch Tower Society provides information about current non-blood medical procedures.[269]
Though Jehovah's Witnesses do not accept blood transfusions of whole blood, they may accept some blood plasma fractions at their own discretion.[270][271][272] The Watch Tower Society provides pre-formatted Power of Attorney documents prohibiting major blood components, in which members can specify which allowable fractions and treatments they will personally accept.[273][274] Jehovah's Witnesses have established Hospital Liaison Committees as a cooperative arrangement between individual Jehovah's Witnesses and medical professionals and hospitals.[275][276]
Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses
JWStats1931-2010.png
Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, but do not form a large part of the population of any country.
As of August 2012, Jehovah's Witnesses report an average of 7.53 million publishers—the term they use for members actively involved in preaching—in 111,719 congregations.[1] In 2012, these reports indicated over 1.74 billion hours spent in preaching and "Bible study" activity. Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.78 million.[277] Jehovah's Witnesses estimate their current worldwide growth rate to be 2.4% per year.[1]
The official published membership statistics, such as those mentioned above, include only those who submit reports for their personal ministry; official statistics do not include inactive and disfellowshipped individuals or others who might attend their meetings. As a result, only about half of those who self-identified as Jehovah's Witnesses in independent demographic studies are considered active by the faith itself.[278][279] The 2008 US Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life survey found a low retention rate among members of the religion: about 37% of people raised in the religion continued to identify themselves as Jehovah's Witnesses.[280][281]
Sociological analysis
See also: Sociological classifications of religious movements
Sociologist James A. Beckford, in his 1975 study of Jehovah's Witnesses, classified the religion's organizational structure as Totalizing, characterized by an assertive leadership, specific and narrow objectives, control over competing demands on members' time and energy, and control over the quality of new members. Other characteristics of the classification include likelihood of friction with secular authorities, reluctance to co-operate with other religious organizations, a high rate of membership turnover, a low rate of doctrinal change, and strict uniformity of beliefs among members.[282] Beckford identified the religion's chief characteristics as historicism (identifying historical events as relating to the outworking of God's purpose), absolutism (conviction that the Watch Tower Society dispenses absolute truth), activism (capacity to motivate members to perform missionary tasks), rationalism (conviction that Witness doctrines have a rational basis devoid of mystery), authoritarianism (rigid presentation of regulations without the opportunity for criticism) and world indifference (rejection of certain secular requirements and medical treatments).[283]
Sociologist Bryan R. Wilson, in his consideration of five religions including Jehovah's Witnesses, noted that each of the religions:[284]
1."exists in a state of tension with the wider society;"
2."imposes tests of merit on would-be members;"
3."exercises stern discipline, regulating the declared beliefs and the life habits of members and prescribing and operating sanctions for those who deviate, including the possibility of expulsion;"
4."demands sustained and total commitment from its members, and the subordination, and perhaps even the exclusion of all other interests."
A sociological comparative study by the Pew Research Center found that Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States ranked highest in statistics for getting no further than high school graduation, belief in God, importance of religion in one's life, frequency of religious attendance, frequency of prayers, belief their prayers are answered, belief that their religion can only be interpreted one way, belief that theirs is the only one true faith leading to eternal life, opposition to abortion, and opposition to homosexuality. In the study, Jehovah's Witnesses ranked lowest in statistics for having earned a graduate degree and interest in politics.[285]
Opposition
Controversy surrounding various beliefs, doctrines and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses has led to opposition from local governments, communities, and religious groups. Religious commentator Ken Jubber wrote that "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's witnesses as the most persecuted group of Christians of the twentieth century."[286]
Persecution
Main article: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses
See also: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany

 

 Jehovah's Witness prisoners were identified by purple triangle badges in Nazi concentration camps.
Political and religious animosity against Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries. Their doctrine of political neutrality and their refusal to serve in the military has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription during World War II and at other times where national service has been compulsory. In 1933, there were approximately 20,000 Jehovah's Witnesses in Germany,[287] of whom about 10,000 were imprisoned. Of those, 2000 were sent to concentration camps, where they were identified by purple triangles; as many as 1200 died, including 250 who were executed.[288][289][290][291] In Canada, Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps[292] along with political dissidents and people of Chinese and Japanese descent.[293] In the former Soviet Union, about 9300 Jehovah's Witnesses were deported to Siberia as part of Operation North in April 1951.[294] Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries, including China, Vietnam and some Islamic states.[295][296]
Authors including William Whalen, Shawn Francis Peters and former Witnesses Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Alan Rogerson and William Schnell, have claimed the religion incited opposition to pursue a course of martyrdom under Rutherford's leadership during the 1930s, in a bid to attract dispossessed members of society, and to convince members that persecution from the outside world was evidence of the "truth" of their struggle to serve God.[297] Watch Tower Society literature of the period directed Witnesses to "avoid unnecessary opposition or prejudice", stating that their purpose is not to get arrested.[298]
Legal challenges
Main article: Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses by country
Several cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses have been heard by Supreme Courts throughout the world.[299] The cases generally relate to their right to practice their religion, displays of patriotism and military service, and blood transfusions.[300]
In the United States, their persistent legal challenges prompted a series of state and federal court rulings that reinforced judicial protections for civil liberties.[301] Among the rights strengthened by Witness court victories in the United States are the protection of religious conduct from federal and state interference, the right to abstain from patriotic rituals and military service, the right of patients to refuse medical treatment, and the right to engage in public discourse.[302] Similar cases in their favor have been heard in Canada.[303]
Criticism
Main article: Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses have attracted criticism over issues surrounding their Bible translation, doctrines, their handling of sexual abuse cases, and what is claimed to be coercion of members. Many of the claims are denied by Jehovah's Witnesses and some have also been disputed by courts and religious scholars.
Suppression of free speech and thought
Doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses are established by the Governing Body, without consultation with other members.[6] The religion does not tolerate dissidence about doctrines and practices;[140][304][305][306] members who openly disagree with the religion's teachings are shunned.[225] Watch Tower Society publications strongly discourage followers from questioning its doctrines and counsel, reasoning that the Society is to be trusted as "God's organization".[306][307][308][309] It also warns members to "avoid independent thinking", claiming such thinking "was introduced by Satan the Devil"[310][311] and would "cause division".[312] Those who openly disagree with official teachings are condemned as "apostates" and "mentally diseased".[313][314][315]
Former members Heather and Gary Botting compare the cultural paradigms of the religion to George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-four,[316] and Alan Rogerson describes the religion's leadership as totalitarian.[317] Other critics charge that by disparaging individual decision-making, the Watch Tower Society cultivates a system of unquestioning obedience[146][318] in which Witnesses abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives.[319][320] Critics also accuse the Watch Tower Society of exercising "intellectual dominance" over Witnesses,[321] controlling information[225][322][323] and creating "mental isolation",[324] which former Governing Body member Raymond Franz argued were all elements of mind control.[324]
Watch Tower Society publications state that consensus of faith aids unity,[325] and deny that unity restricts individuality or imagination.[325] Historian James Irvin Lichti has rejected the description of the religion as "totalitarian".[326]
Sociologist Rodney Stark states that while Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and members are expected to conform to "rather strict standards," enforcement tends to be informal, sustained by close bonds of friendship and that Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it."[92] Sociologist Andrew Holden states that most members who join millenarian movements such as Jehovah's Witnesses have made an informed choice.[327] However, he also states that defectors "are seldom allowed a dignified exit",[313] and describes the administration as autocratic.[6]
New World Translation
Main article: New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures
Some Bible scholars including Bruce M. Metzger, former Professor and Bible editor at Princeton Theological Seminary, have claimed that the translation of certain texts in its New World Translation of the Bible is biased in favor of Witness practices and doctrines.[328][329][330][331][332] English Bible editor Dr. Harold H. Rowley criticized the pre-release edition of the first volume (Genesis to Ruth) published in 1953 as "a shining example of how the Bible should not be translated."[333] On the other hand, in his study on nine of "the Bibles most widely in use in the English-speaking world" Bible scholar Jason BeDuhn, Professor of Religious Studies from Northern Arizona University, claimed that the New World Translation was not bias free, but that he considered it to be "the most accurate of the translations compared," and "a remarkably good translation."[334]
Metzger stated, "on the whole, one gains a tolerably good impression of the scholarly equipment of the translators", but goes on to criticize their insertion of the name Jehovah in the New Testament since it does not appear in the extant Greek manuscripts.[335][336] Watch Tower Society publications have said the name was "restored" on a sound basis, particularly when New Testament writers used the Greek Kyrios (Lord) when translating Old Testament Hebrew scriptures that contained the Tetragrammaton.[337] BeDuhn state that the insertion of the name Jehovah in the New Testament "violate[s] accuracy in favor of denominationally preferred expressions for God".[334]
Failed predictions
Main article: Watch Tower Society unfulfilled predictions
Watch Tower Society publications have claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses (and formerly, the International Bible Students) to declare his will[338][339] and has provided advance knowledge about Armageddon and the establishment of God's kingdom.[340][341][342] Some publications also claimed that God has used Jehovah's Witnesses and the International Bible Students as a modern-day prophet.[note 5] Jehovah's Witnesses' publications have made various predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible.[343][344] Failed predictions have led to the alteration or abandonment of some doctrines.[345][346] Some failed predictions that the Watch Tower Society had claimed were presented as "beyond doubt" or "approved by God".[347]
The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet,[348] stating that its teachings are not inspired or infallible,[349][350][351] and that it has not claimed its predictions were "the words of Jehovah."[348] George D. Chryssides has suggested that with the exception of statements about 1914, 1925 and 1975, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah's Witnesses are largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology than to failed predictions.[84] Chryssides further states, "it is therefore simplistic and naïve to view the Witnesses as a group that continues to set a single end-date that fails and then devise a new one, as many counter-cultists do."[352] However, sociologist Andrew Holden states that since the foundation of the movement around 140 years ago, "Witnesses have maintained that we are living on the precipice of the end of time."[353]
Handling of sexual abuse cases
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses' handling of child sex abuse
Critics have accused Jehovah's Witnesses of employing organizational policies that make the reporting of sexual abuse difficult for members. Some victims of sexual abuse have asserted that they were ordered by certain local elders to maintain silence so as to avoid embarrassment to both the accused and the organization.[354][355][356][357] Jehovah's Witnesses maintain that they have no policy of silence, and that elders are directed to report abuse to authorities when there is evidence of abuse, and when required to by law. In 1997, Jehovah's Witnesses' Office of Public Information published their policy[358] for elders to report allegations of child abuse to the authorities where required by law to do so, even if there was only one witness.[359][360] Any person known to have sexually abused a child is prohibited from holding any responsibility inside the organization.[361] Unless considered by the congregation elders to demonstrate repentance, such a person is typically disfellowshipped.[212]
In June 2012, the Superior Court of Alameda, California, ordered the Watch Tower Society to pay $21 million in punitive damages, in addition to compensatory damages, after finding that the Society's policy to not disclose child abuse history of a member to parents in the congregation or to report abuse to authorities contributed to the sexual abuse of a nine-year-old girl.[362][363] A subsequent motion in September 2012 resulted in a reduction of the punitive damages to $8.61 million.[364] The Watch Tower Society appealed the revised ruling, and the case is ongoing.[365]
References
Explanatory notes
1.^ Twelve members as of September 2005 (See The Watchtower, March 15, 2006, page 26)
 Schroeder died March 8, 2006. (See The Watchtower, September 15, 2006, page 31)
 Sydlik died April 18, 2006. (See The Watchtower, January 1, 2007, page 8)
 Barber died April 8, 2007. (See The Watchtower, October 15, 2007, page 31)
 Jaracz died June 9, 2010. (See The Watchtower, November 15, 2010, page 23)
 Barr died December 4, 2010. (See The Watchtower, May 15, 2011, page 6)
 Sanderson appointed September 1, 2012. (See The Watchtower, July 15, 2013, page 26)
2.^ Raymond Franz (In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, p.449) cites various Watch Tower Society publications that stress loyalty and obedience to the organization, including: "Following Faithful Shepherds with Life in View", The Watchtower, October 1, 1967, page 591, "Make haste to identify the visible theocratic organization of God that represents his king, Jesus Christ. It is essential for life. Doing so, be complete in accepting its every aspect."; The Watchtower, September 1, 2006, pg 15, "Have we formed a loyal attachment to the organization that Jehovah is using today?"; "Your Reminders Are What I Am Fond Of", The Watchtower, June 15, 2006, pg 26, "We too should remain faithful to Jehovah and to his organization regardless of injustices we suffer and regardless of what others do."; "Are You Prepared for Survival?", The Watchtower, May 15, 2006, pg 22, "Just as Noah and his God-fearing family were preserved in the ark, survival of individuals today depends on their faith and their loyal association with the earthly part of Jehovah’s universal organization."; Worship The Only True God (Watch Tower Society, 2002), pg 134, "Jehovah is guiding us today by means of his visible organization under Christ. Our attitude toward this arrangement demonstrates how we feel about the issue of sovereignty ... By being loyal to Jehovah’s organization, we show that Jehovah is our God and that we are united in worship of him."
3.^ 2013 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 178. "During the 2012 service year, Jehovah’s Witnesses spent over $184 million in caring for special pioneers, missionaries, and traveling overseers in their field service assignments."
4.^ A common example given is a baptized Witness who dates a non-Witness; see The Watchtower, July 15, 1999, p. 30.
5.^ Raymond Franz cites numerous examples. In Crisis of Conscience, 2002, pg. 173, he quotes from "They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them", (The Watchtower, April 1, 1972,) which states that God had raised Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet "to warn (people) of dangers and declare things to come" He also cites "Identifying the Right Kind of Messenger" (The Watchtower, May 1, 1997, page 8) which identifies the Witnesses as his "true messengers ... by making the messages he delivers through them come true", in contrast to "false messengers", whose predictions fail. In In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, he quotes The Nations Shall Know That I Am Jehovah—How? (1971, pg 70, 292) which describes Witnesses as the modern Ezekiel class, "a genuine prophet within our generation". The Watch Tower book noted: "Concerning the message faithfully delivered by the Ezekiel class, Jehovah positively states that it 'must come true' ... those who wait undecided until it does 'come true' will also have to know that a prophet himself had proved to be in the midst of them." He also cites "Execution of the Great Harlot Nears", (The Watchtower, October 15, 1980, pg 17) which claims God gives the Witnesses "special knowledge that others do not have ... advance knowledge about this system's end".
Citations
1.^ a b c 2013 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. 2012. p. 55.
2.^ Sources for descriptors:
• Millenarian: Beckford, James A. (1975). The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. pp. 118–119, 151, 200–201. ISBN 0-631-16310-7.
• Restorationist: Stark et al.; Iannaccone, Laurence (1997). "Why Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application". Journal of Contemporary Religion 12 (2): 133–157. doi:10.1080/13537909708580796.
• Christian: "Religious Tolerance.org". "Statistics on Religion".
• Denomination: "Jehovah's Witnesses at a Glance"."The American Heritage Dictionary"."Memorial and Museum AUSCHWITZ-BIRKENAU".
3.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses Official Media Web Site: Our History and Organization: Membership". Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses. "While other religious groups count their membership by occasional or annual attendance, this figure reflects only those who are actively involved in the public Bible educational work [of Jehovah's Witnesses]."
4.^ "Guided by God's Spirit". Awake!: 32. June 2008. Retrieved 2012–06–16.
5.^ "Statistics at Jehovah's Witnesses official website, 2010".
6.^ a b c Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. p. 22. ISBN 0-415-26609-2.
7.^ Beckford, James A. (1975). The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. p. 221. ISBN 0-631-16310-7. "Doctrine has always emanated from the Society's elite in Brooklyn and has never emerged from discussion among, or suggestion from, rank-and-file Witnesses."
8.^ "Focus on the Goodness of Jehovah's Organization". The Watchtower: 20. July 15, 2006. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
9.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses". The Columbia Encyclopedia. Columbia University Press. 2011. ISBN 978-0-7876-5015-5. "The Witnesses base their teaching on the Bible."
10.^ Chryssides, George D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. London: Continuum. p. 100. ISBN 0-8264-5959-5. "Predictably, mainstream Christians accuse the New World Translation of inaccuracy, as if their own translations were thoroughly reliable. Jehovah's Witnesses will engage in discussion with others using whatever translation is available."
11.^ Alan Rogerson (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die. Constable. pp. 70, 123. "This was the Witnesses' own translation of the New Testament ... now that the Society has decreed that they should use the New World Translation of the Bible in preference other versions, they are convinced their translation is the best."
12.^ Tess Van Sommers, Religions in Australia, Rigby, Adelaide, 1966, page 92: "Since 1870, the Watch Tower Society has used more than seventy Bible translations. In 1961 the society released its own complete Bible in modern English, known as The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. This is now the preferred translation among English-speaking congregations."
13.^ Edwards, Linda (2001). A Brief Guide to Beliefs. Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 438. ISBN 0-664-22259-5. "The Jehovah's Witnesses' interpretation of Christianity and their rejection of orthodoxy influenced them to produce their own translation of the Bible, The New World Translation."
14.^ Our Kingdom Ministry, November 1992, "When we read from our Bible, the householder may comment on the clarity of language used in the New World Translation. Or we may find that the householder shows interest in our message but does not have a Bible. In these cases we may describe the unique features of the Bible we use and the reasons why we prefer it to others."
15.^ "Jehovah's Witness". Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2007. ISBN 978-1-59339-293-2.
16.^ Michael Hill, ed. (1972). "The Embryonic State of a Religious Sect's Development: The Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain (5): 11–12. "Joseph Franklin Rutherford succeeded to Russell's position as President of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society, but only at the expense of antagonizing a large proportion of the Watch Towers subscribers. Nevertheless, he persisted in moulding the Society to suit his own programme of activist evangelism under systematic central control, and he succeeded in creating the administrative structure of the present-day sect of Jehovah's Witnesses."
17.^ Leo P. Chall (1978). "Sociological Abstracts". Sociology of Religion 26 (1–3): 193. "Rutherford, through the Watch Tower Society, succeeded in changing all aspects of the sect from 1919 to 1932 and created Jehovah's Witnesses—a charismatic offshoot of the Bible student community."
18.^ Isaiah 43:10–12
19.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 64
20.^ Singelenberg, Richard (1989). "It Separated the Wheat From the Chaff: The 1975 Prophecy and its Impact Among Dutch Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociological Analysis 50 (Spring 1989): 23–40, footnote 8. "'The Truth' is Witnesses' jargon, meaning the Society's belief system."
21.^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 280–283. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3. "Most Witnesses tend to think of society outside their own community as decadent and corrupt ... This in turn means to Jehovah's Witnesses that they must keep themselves apart from Satan's "doomed system of things." Thus most tend to socialize largely, although not totally, within the Witness community."
22.^ Chryssides, George D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. London: Continuum. p. 5. ISBN 0-8264-5959-5. "The Jehovah's Witnesses are well known for their practice of 'disfellowshipping' wayward members."
23.^ Gary Botting, Fundamental Freedoms and Jehovah's Witnesses (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1993), pg 1–13.
24.^ Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Constable & Co, London. p. 6. ISBN 978-0094559400.
25.^ a b Beckford 1975, p. 2
26.^ Crompton, Robert (1996). Counting the Days to Armageddon. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. pp. 37–39. ISBN 0-227-67939-3.
27.^ Bible Examiner October, 1876 "Gentile Times: When Do They End?" pp 27–8: "The seven times will end in A.D. 1914; when Jerusalem shall be delivered forever ... when Gentile Governments shall have been dashed to pieces; when God shall have poured out of his fury upon the nations and they acknowledge him King of Kings and Lord of Lords."
28.^ Studies in the Scriptures volume 4, "The Battle of Armageddon", 1897, pg xii
29.^ C. T. Russell, The Time is at Hand, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1889, page 101.
30.^ Heather and Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984, p. 36.
31.^ a b Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 18
32.^ Zion's Watch Tower, July 1, 1879, pg 1: "This is the first number of the first volume of "Zion's Watch Tower," and it may not be amiss to state the object of its publication. That we are living "in the last days"—"the day of the Lord"—"the end" of the Gospel age, and consequently, in the dawn of a "new" age."
33.^ 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, Watch Tower, pages 38–39
34.^ Zion's Watch Tower, September 1884, pp. 7–8
35.^ Studies in the Scriptures volume 6 "The New Creation" pp. 195–272
36.^ C.T. Russell, "A Conspiracy Exposed", Zion's Watch Tower Extra edition, April 25, 1894, page 55–60, "This is a business association merely ... it has no creed or confession ... it is merely a business convenience in disseminating the truth."]
37.^ Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses by George D. Chryssides, Scarecrow Press, 2008, page xxxiv, "Russell wanted to consolidate the movement he had started. ...In 1880, Bible House, a four-story building in Allegheny, was completed, with printing facilities and meeting accommodation, and it became the organization's headquarters. The next stage of institutionalization was legal incorporation. In 1884, Russell formed the Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society, which was incorporated in Pennsylvania... Russell was concerned that his supporters should feel part of a unified movement."
38.^ Religion in the Twentieth Century by Vergilius Ture Anselm Ferm, Philosophical Library, 1948, page 383, "As the [unincorporated Watch Tower] Society expanded, it became necessary to incorporate it and build a more definite organization. In 1884, a charter was granted recognizing the Society as a religious, non-profit corporation."
39.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 19
40.^ A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States Greenwood Press: 1996. pg. 35: "Russell is naturally media literate, and the amount of literature he circulates proves staggering. Books, booklets, and tracts are distributed by the hundreds of millions. This is supplemented by well-publicized speaking tours and a masterful press relations effort, which gives him widespread access to general audiences."
41.^ a b The Overland Monthly, January 1910 pg. 130
42.^ Penton 1997, p. 26–29
43.^ W.T. Ellis, The Continent, McCormick Publishing Company, vol. 43, no. 40, October 3, 1912 pg. 1354
44.^ Religious Diversity and American Religious History by Walter H. Conser, Sumner B. Twiss, University of Georgia Press, 1997, page 136, "The Jehovah's Witnesses...has maintained a very different attitude toward history. Established initially in the 1870s by Charles Taze Russell under the title International Bible Students Association, this organization has proclaimed..."
45.^ The New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 1910, vol 7, pg 374
46.^ Penton 1997, p. 26
47.^ Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Constable & Co, London. p. 31. ISBN 978-0094559400.
48.^ Penton 1997, p. 53
49.^ A.N. Pierson et al, Light After Darkness, 1917, page 4.
50.^ Crompton, Robert (1996). Counting the Days to Armageddon. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. p. 101. ISBN 0-227-67939-3.
51.^ a b Penton 1997, pp. 58, 61–62
52.^ The Bible Students Monthly, vol. 9 no. 9, pp 1, 4: "The following article is extracted mainly from Pastor Russell's posthumous volume entitled "THE FINISHED MYSTERY," the 7th in the series of his STUDIES IN THE SCRIPTURES and published subsequent to his death."
53.^ Lawson, John D., American State Trials, vol 13, Thomas Law Book Company, 1921, pg viii: "After his death and after we were in the war they issued a seventh volume of this series, entitled "The Finished Mystery," which, under the guise of being a posthumous work of Pastor Russell, included an attack on the war and an attack on patriotism, which were not written by Pastor Russell and could not have possibly been written by him."
54.^ Crompton, Robert (1996). Counting the Days to Armageddon. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. pp. 84–85. ISBN 0-227-67939-3. "One of Rutherford's first actions as president ... was, without reference either to his fellow directors or to the editorial committee which Russell had nominated in his will, to commission a seventh volume of Studies in the Scriptures. Responsibility for preparing this volume was given to two of Russell's close associates, George H. Fisher and Clayton J. Woodworth. On the face of it, their brief was to edit for publication the notes left by Russell ... and to draw upon his published writings ... It is obvious ... that it was not in any straightforward sense the result of editing Russell's papers, rather it was in large measure the original work of Woodworth and Fisher at the behest of the new president."
55.^ "Publisher's Preface". The Finished Mystery. "But the fact is, he did write it. This book may properly be said to be a posthumous publication of Pastor Russell. Why?... This book is chiefly a compilation of things which he wrote and which have been brought together in harmonious style by properly applying the symbols which he explained to the Church."
56.^ Penton 1997, p. 55
57.^ Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Constable & Co, London. p. 44. ISBN 978-0094559400.
58.^ a b Franz, Raymond (2007). "Chapter 4". In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. ISBN 0-914675-16-8.
59.^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1993. pp. 72–77.
60.^ Chryssides, George D. (2010). "How Prophecy Succeeds: The Jehovah’s Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations". International Journal for the Study of New Religions 1 (1): 39. doi:10.1558/ijsnr.v1i1.27. ISSN 2041-952X.
61.^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. p. 144. ISBN 0-914675-16-8.
62.^ Salvation, Watch Tower Society, 1939, as cited in Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, page 76
63.^ Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Constable & Co, London. pp. 39, 52. ISBN 978-0094559400.
64.^ Herbert H. Stroup, The Jehovah's Witnesses, Colombia University Press, New York, 1945, pg 14,15: "Following his election the existence of the movement was threatened as never before. Many of those who remembered wistfully the halcyon days of Mr Russell's leadership found that the new incumbent did not fulfill their expectations of a saintly leader. Various elements split off from the parent body, and such fission continued throughout Rutherford's leadership."
65.^ Reed, David, Whither the Watchtower? Christian Research Journal, Summer 1993, pg 27: "By gradually replacing locally elected elders with his own appointees, he managed to transform a loose collection of semi-autonomous, democratically run congregations into a tight-knit organizational machine controlled from his office. Some local congregations broke away, forming such groups as the Chicago Bible Students, the Dawn Bible Students, and the Laymen's Home Missionary Movement, all of which continue to this day."
66.^ Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave, William J. Schnell, Baker, Grand Rapids, 1956, as cited by Rogerson, page 52. Rogerson notes that it is not clear exactly how many Bible Students left, but quotes Rutherford (Jehovah, 1934, page 277) as saying "only a few" who left other religions were then "in God's organization".
67.^ The Present Truth and Herald of Christ's Epiphany, P.S.L. Johnson (April 1927, pg 66). Johnson stated that between late 1923 and early 1927, "20,000 to 30,000 Truth people the world over have left the Society."
68.^ Tony Wills (A People For His Name, pg. 167) cites The Watch Tower (December 1, 1927, pg 355) in which Rutherford states that "the larger percentage" of original Bible Students had by then departed.
69.^ Penton 1997, p. 50
70.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 37
71.^ Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. London: Constable. p. 55. "In 1931 came an important milestone in the history of the organisation. For many years Rutherford's followers had been called a variety of names: 'International Bible Students', 'Russellites', or 'Millennial Dawners'. In order to distinguish clearly his followers from the other groups who had separated in 1918 Rutherford proposed that they adopt an entirely new name—Jehovah's witnesses."
72.^ Beckford 1975, p. 30
73.^ "A New Name". The Watch Tower: 291. October 1, 1931. "Since the death of Charles T. Russell there have arisen numerous companies formed out of those who once walked with him, each of these companies claiming to teach the truth, and each calling themselves by some name, such as "Followers of Pastor Russell", "those who stand by the truth as expounded by Pastor Russell," "Associated Bible Students," and some by the names of their local leaders. All of this tends to confusion and hinders those of good will who are not better informed from obtaining a knowledge of the truth."
74.^ Beckford 1975, p. 31
75.^ Penton 1997, pp. 71–72
76.^ Crompton, Robert (1996). Counting the Days to Armageddon. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. pp. 109–110. ISBN 0-227-67939-3.
77.^ Beckford 1975, p. 35
78.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 145. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
79.^ 1943 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1942. pp. 221–222.
80.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1959. pp. 312–313.
81.^ Beckford 1975, pp. 47–52
82.^ Beckford 1975, pp. 52–55
83.^ Penton 1997, pp. 89–90
84.^ a b George Chryssides, They Keep Changing the Dates, A paper presented at the CESNUR 2010 conference in Torino.
85.^ Chryssides, George D. (2008). Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses. Scarecrow Press. p. 19. ISBN 0-8108-6074-0.
86.^ a b Penton 1997, p. 95
87.^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 46. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7.
88.^ Awake!. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. October 8, 1968. p. 14. "Does this mean that the above evidence positively points to 1975 as the complete end of this system of things? Since the Bible does not specifically state this, no man can say... If the 1970s should see intervention by Jehovah God to bring an end to a corrupt world drifting toward ultimate disintegration, that should surely not surprise us."
89.^ "How Are You Using Your Life?". Our Kingdom Ministry: 63. May 1974. "Reports are heard of brothers selling their homes and property and planning to finish out the rest of their days in this old system in the pioneer service. Certainly this is a fine way to spend the short time remaining before the wicked world's end."
90.^ Franz, Raymond. "1975—The Appropriate Time for God to Act" (PDF). Crisis of Conscience. pp. 237–253. ISBN 0-914675-23-0. Retrieved 2006–07–27.
91.^ Singelenberg, Richard (1989). "The '1975'-prophecy and its impact among Dutch Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociological Analysis 50 (1): 23–40. doi:10.2307/3710916. JSTOR 3710916. Notes a nine percent drop in total publishers (door-to-door preachers) and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers (full-time preachers) in the Netherlands.
92.^ a b Stark and Iannoccone (1997). "Why the Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application" (PDF). Journal of Contemporary Religion: 142–143. Retrieved 2013–7–16.
93.^ Dart, John (January 30, 1982). "Defectors Feel 'Witness' Wrath: Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth". Los Angeles Times. p. B4. Cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971 to 1981 of 737,241, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.
94.^ a b Hesse, Hans (2001). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi-Regime. Chicago: Edition Temmen c/o. pp. 296, 298. ISBN 3-861-08750-2.
95.^ The Watchtower. March 15, 1980. pp. 17–18. "With the appearance of the book Life Everlasting—in Freedom of the Sons of God, ... considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. ... there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a buildup of the expectation already initiated. ... persons having to do with the publication of the information ... contributed to the buildup of hopes centered on that date."
96.^ Chryssides Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses, pp. 32,112
97.^ Chryssides Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 64
98.^ Chryssides Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 79
99.^ "Overseers and Ministerial Servants Theocratically Appointed". The Watchtower: 16. 15 January 2001. "Theocratic appointments come from Jehovah through his Son and God’s visible earthly channel, “the faithful and discreet slave” and its Governing Body."
100.^ The Watchtower, October 1, 1967 pg 591–92: "Make haste to identify the visible theocratic organization of God that represents his king, Jesus Christ. It is essential for life. Doing so, be complete in accepting its every aspect. We cannot claim to love God, yet deny his Word and channel of communication. Therefore, in submitting to Jehovah's visible theocratic organization, we must be in full and complete agreement with every feature of its apostolic procedure and requirements."
101.^ a b c Penton 1997, pp. 211–252
102.^ Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 2007 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. pp. 4, 6.
103.^ Botting, Heather & Gary (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7.
104.^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
105.^ The Watchtower, May 15, 2008, page 29
106.^ "Seek God's guidance in all things", The Watchtower, April 15, 2008, page 11.
107.^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 153. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
108.^ Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 2010.
109.^ "Annual Meeting Report".
110.^ Penton 1997, p. 101, 233–235
111.^ a b Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael (2006), Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America 2, Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, p. 69, ISBN 0-275-98712-4
112.^ Taylor, Elizabeth J. (2012). Religion: A Clinical Guide for Nurses. Springer Publishing Company. p. 163. ISBN 0-8261-0860-1.
113.^ DuShane, Tony (2012). Confessions of a Teenage Jesus Jerk. ReadHowYouWant. p. 126. ISBN 1-4587-8357-X.
114.^ Hoekema, Anthony A. (1963). The Four Major Cults. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans. p. 291. ISBN 0-8028-3117-6.
115.^ a b Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. pp. 116–120. ISBN 0-914675-16-8.
116.^ Chryssides Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 14
117.^ What Does the Bible Really Teach. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. p. 182. "Going beneath the water symbolizes that you have died to your former life course. Being raised up out of the water indicates that you are now alive to do the will of God. Remember, too, that you have made a dedication to Jehovah God himself, not to a work, a cause, other humans, or an organization."
118.^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. pp. 449–464. ISBN 0-914675-16-8.
119.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 32, "The structure of the movement and the intense loyalty demanded of each individual at every level demonstrates the characteristics of totalitarianism."
120.^ You Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1989, page 255, "It is simply not true that all religions lead to the same goal. (Matthew 7:21–23; 24:21) You must be part of Jehovah's organization, doing God's will, in order to receive his blessing of everlasting life."
121.^ "You Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth—But How?", The Watchtower, February 15, 1983, page 12, "Jehovah is using only one organization today to accomplish his will. To receive everlasting life in the earthly Paradise we must identify that organization and serve God as part of it."
122.^ "Serving Jehovah Loyally", The Watchtower, November 15, 1992, page 21, "I determined to stay by the faithful organization. How else can one get Jehovah's favor and blessing?" There is nowhere else to go for divine favor and life eternal."
123.^ How are you funded? Jehovah’s Witnesses Official Media Web Site
124.^ "Jehovah’s Witnesses — Publishing Titans". "AT THE TOP / NYC COMPANY PROFILES / NYC 40".
125.^ Yearbook 2002, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, p. 31, 2002
126.^ Van Voorst,Robert E. (2012). RELG: World (with Religion CourseMate with eBook Printed Access Card). Cengage Learning. p. 288. ISBN 1-1117-2620-5.
127.^ Organized to Do Jehovah's Will, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 2005, pages 17–18.
128.^ "Cooperating With the Governing Body Today,", The Watchtower, March 15, 1990, page 19.
129.^ Beckford 1975, p. 119
130.^ "Focus on the Goodness of Jehovah's Organization". The Watchtower: 22. 15 July 2006.
131.^ "Impart God's Progressive Revelation to Mankind", The Watchtower, March 1, 1965, pp. 158–159
132.^ Penton 1997, pp. 165–171
133.^ "Flashes of Light—Great and Small", The Watchtower, May 15, 1995, page 15.
134.^ Penton 1997, p. 165
135.^ J. F. Rutherford, Preparation, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1933, page 64, 67, "Enlightenment proceeds from Jehovah by and through Christ Jesus and is given to the faithful anointed on earth at the temple, and brings great peace and consolation to them. Again Zechariah talked with the angel of the Lord, which shows that the remnant are instructed by the angels of the Lord. The remnant do not hear audible sounds, because such is not necessary. Jehovah has provided his own good way to convey thoughts to the minds of his anointed ones ... Those of the remnant, being honest and true, must say, We do not know; and the Lord enlightens them, sending his angels for that very purpose."
136.^ "The Spirit Searches into the Deep Things of God", The Watchtower, July 15, 2010, page 23, "When the time comes to clarify a spiritual matter in our day, holy spirit helps responsible representatives of 'the faithful and discreet slave' at world headquarters to discern deep truths that were not previously understood. The Governing Body as a whole considers adjusted explanations. What they learn, they publish for the benefit of all."
137.^ "Do We Need Help to Understand the Bible?". The Watchtower: 19. February 15, 1981. "True, the brothers preparing these publications are not infallible. Their writings are not inspired as are those of Paul and the other Bible writers. (2 Tim. 3:16) And so, at times, it has been necessary, as understanding became clearer, to correct views. (Prov. 4:18)"
138.^ "Do You See the Evidence of God's Guidance?", The Watchtower, April 15, 2011, pages 3–5, "How, then, do we react when we receive divine direction? Do we try to apply it “right afterward”? Or do we continue doing things just as we have been accustomed to doing them? Are we familiar with up-to-date directions, such as those regarding conducting home Bible studies, preaching to foreign speaking people, regularly sharing in family worship, cooperating with Hospital Liaison Committees, and conducting ourselves properly at conventions? ... Do you clearly discern the evidence of divine guidance? Jehovah uses his organization to guide us, his people, through “the wilderness” during these last days of Satan’s wicked world."
139.^ "Unity Identifies True Worship", The Watchtower, September 15, 2010, page 13 par.8 "This spiritual food is based on God’s Word. Thus, what is taught is not from men but from Jehovah."
140.^ a b "Overseers of Jehovah’s People", The Watchtower, June 15, 1957, "Let us now unmistakably identify Jehovah’s channel of communication for our day, that we may continue in his favor ... It is vital that we appreciate this fact and respond to the directions of the “slave” as we would to the voice of God, because it is His provision."
141.^ Penton 1997, p. 172
142.^ All Scripture is Inspired of God, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1990, page 336.
143.^ All Scripture is Inspired of God, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1990, page 9.
144.^ Reasoning From The Scriptures | pp. 199–208 Jehovah's Witnesses
145.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 67, "Materials such as The Watchtower are almost as significant to the Witnesses as the Bible, since the information is presented as the inspired work of theologians, and they are, therefore, believed to contain as much truth as biblical texts."
146.^ a b James A. Beverley, Crisis of Allegiance, Welch Publishing Company, Burlington, Ontario, 1986, ISBN 0-920413-37-4, pages 25–26, 101, "For every passage in Society literature that urges members to be bold and courageous in critical pursuits, there are many others that warn about independent thinking and the peril of questioning the organization ... Fear of disobedience to the Governing Body keeps Jehovah's Witnesses from carefully checking into biblical doctrine or allegations concerning false prophecy, faulty scholarship, and injustice. Witnesses are told not to read books like this one."
147.^ "Keep Clear of False Worship!", The Watchtower, 15 March 2006, "True Christians keep clear of false worship, rejecting false religious teachings. This means that we avoid exposure to religious programs on radio and television as well as religious literature that promotes lies about God and his Word."
148.^ "Questions From Readers—Why do Jehovah’s Witnesses decline to exchange their Bible study aids for the religious literature of people they meet". The Watchtower: 31. May 1, 1984. "So it would be foolhardy, as well as a waste of valuable time, for Jehovah’s Witnesses to accept and expose themselves to false religious literature that is designed to deceive."
149.^ Question Box, Our Kingdom Ministry, September 2007, "Throughout the earth, Jehovah’s people are receiving ample spiritual instruction and encouragement at congregation meetings, assemblies, and conventions, as well as through the publications of Jehovah’s organization. Under the guidance of his holy spirit and on the basis of his Word of truth, Jehovah provides what is needed so that all of God’s people may be fitly united in the same mind and in the same line of thought and remain stabilized in the faith. Surely we are grateful for Jehovah’s spiritual provisions in these last days. Thus, the faithful and discreet slave does not endorse any literature, meetings, or Web sites that are not produced or organized under its oversight."
150.^ "Make Your Advancement Manifest", The Watchtower, August 1, 2001, page 14, "Since oneness is to be observed, a mature Christian must be in unity and full harmony with fellow believers as far as faith and knowledge are concerned. He does not advocate or insist on personal opinions or harbor private ideas when it comes to Bible understanding. Rather, he has complete confidence in the truth as it is revealed by Jehovah God through his Son, Jesus Christ, and the faithful and discreet slave."
151.^ Testimony by Fred Franz, Transcript, Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh, 1954. page 123, Q: "Did you imply that the individual member has the right of reading the books and the Bible and forming his own view as to the proper interpretation of Holy Writ? A:" .... No....The Scripture is there given in support of the statement, and therefore the individual when he looks up the Scripture and thereby verifies the statement,...search[es] the Scripture to see whether these things were so."
152.^ "Do We Need Help to Understand the Bible?", The Watchtower, February 15, 1981, page 19, "Jesus’ disciples wrote many letters to Christian congregations, to persons who were already in the way of the truth. But nowhere do we read that those brothers first, in a skeptical frame of mind, checked the Scriptures to make certain that those letters had Scriptural backing, that the writers really knew what they were talking about. We can benefit from this consideration. If we have once established what instrument God is using as his 'slave' to dispense spiritual food to his people, surely Jehovah is not pleased if we receive that food as though it might contain something harmful. We should have confidence in the channel God is using."
153.^ Beckford 1975, pp. 84, 89, 92, 119–120
154.^ "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower April 1, 1986 pp. 30–31.
155.^ Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. p. 24. ISBN 0-415-26609-2.
156.^ Ringnes, Hege Kristin; Helje Kringlebotn Sødal (ed.) (2009). Jehovas vitner—en flerfaglig studie (in Norwegian). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. p. 27.
157.^ Holden, A. (2002). Cavorting With the Devil: Jehovah's Witnesses Who Abandon Their Faith (PDF). Department of Sociology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK. p. Endnote [i]. Retrieved 2009–06–21.
158.^ Alan Rogerson (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die. Constable. p. 87.
159.^ Beckford 1975, p. 105
160.^ Revelation Its Grand Climax, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, pg 36, "In the songbook produced by Jehovah’s people in 1905, there were twice as many songs praising Jesus as there were songs praising Jehovah God. In their 1928 songbook, the number of songs extolling Jesus was about the same as the number extolling Jehovah. But in the latest songbook of 1984, Jehovah is honored by four times as many songs as is Jesus. This is in harmony with Jesus’ own words: 'The Father is greater than I am.' Love for Jehovah must be preeminent, accompanied by deep love for Jesus and appreciation of his precious sacrifice and office as God’s High Priest and King."
161.^ Alan Rogerson (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die. Constable. p. 90.
162.^ Hoekema 1963, p. 262
163.^ Hoekema 1963, pp. 276–277
164.^ Penton 1997, p. 372
165.^ Hoekema 1963, p. 270
166.^ "Stay in the “City of Refuge” and Live!", The Watchtower, November 15, 1995, page 19
167.^ Penton 1997, pp. 188–189
168.^ a b Penton 1997, pp. 188–190
169.^ Hoekema 1963, pp. 298–299
170.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 25
171.^ "Identifying the Wild Beast and Its Mark". The Watchtower: 5. 1 April 2004. "This does not mean, however, that every human ruler is a direct tool of Satan."
172.^ Hoekema 1963, pp. 322–324
173.^ a b Hoekema 1963, pp. 265–269
174.^ Penton 1997, p. 186
175.^ Penton 1997, p. 193–194
176.^ "Remaining Organized for Survival Into the Millennium", The Watchtower, September 1, 1989, page 19, "Only Jehovah's Witnesses, those of the anointed remnant and the 'great crowd,'as a united organization under the protection of the Supreme Organizer, have any Scriptural hope of surviving the impending end of this doomed system dominated by Satan the Devil."
177.^ You Can Live Forever in Paradise on Earth,, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1989, pg 255, "Do not conclude that there are different roads, or ways, that you can follow to gain life in God's new system. There is only one ... there will be only one organization—God's visible organization—that will survive the fast-approaching 'great tribulation.' It is simply not true that all religions lead to the same goal. You must be part of Jehovah's organization, doing God's will, in order to receive his blessing of everlasting life."
178.^ "Our Readers Ask: Do Jehovah's Witnesses Believe That They Are the Only Ones Who Will Be Saved?", The Watchtower, November 1, 2008, page 28, "Jehovah's Witnesses hope to be saved. However, they also believe that it is not their job to judge who will be saved. Ultimately, God is the Judge. He decides."
179.^ Hoekema 1963, pp. 315–319
180.^ Insight on the Scriptures Volume 1 p. 606 "Declare Righteous"
181.^ Hoekema 1963, pp. 295–296
182.^ Alan Rogerson (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die. Constable. p. 106.
183.^ "God's Kingdom—Earth's New Rulership", The Watchtower, October 15, 2000, page 10.
184.^ Hoekema 1963, p. 298
185.^ Alan Rogerson (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die. Constable. p. 105.
186.^ The Watchtower, November 1, 1993, pages 8–9, "In 1914 the appointed times of the nations ended, and the time of the end for this world began. The Davidic Kingdom was restored, not in earthly Jerusalem, but invisibly in “the clouds of the heavens.” ... Who would represent on earth the restored Davidic Kingdom? ... Without any doubt at all, it was the small body of anointed brothers of Jesus who in 1914 were known as the Bible Students but since 1931 have been identified as Jehovah’s Witnesses."
187.^ Hoekema 1963, p. 297
188.^ Hoekema 1963, pp. 286
189.^ "Apocalypse—When?", The Watchtower, February 15, 1986, page 6.
190.^ Penton 1997, p. 180
191.^ Hoekema 1963, pp. 307–321
192.^ Penton 1997, p. 17–19
193.^ The Watchtower 10/1/92 p. 16 par. 6 "The Messiah’s Presence and His Rule"
194.^ a b Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 64–69
195.^ 2010 Yearbook of Jehovah’s Witnesses: p. 6 Highlights of the Past Year "UPBUILDING AND ENJOYABLE FAMILY WORSHIP"
196.^ The Watchtower 5/15 2011 p. 14 par 13 Christian Families—“Keep Ready” Maintain a Family Worship Evening
197.^ Hoekema 1963, p. 292
198.^ Crompton, Robert (1996). Counting the Days to Armageddon. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. p. 5. ISBN 0-227-67939-3.
199.^ Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Constable & Co, London. p. 1. ISBN 978-0094559400.
200.^ Whalen, William J. (1962). Armageddon Around the Corner: A Report on Jehovah's Witnesses. New York: John Day Company. p. 15,18.
201.^ "Good News in 500 Languages", The Watchtower, November 1, 2009, page 24, Press release adaptation online, "These translators are part of an army of some 2,300 volunteers who work in over 190 locations around the world. They range in age from 20 to nearly 90 and expend themselves [translating] the Bible's message in 500 languages."
202.^ Ringnes, Hege Kristin; Helje Kringlebotn Sødal (ed.) (2009). Jehovas vitner—en flerfaglig studie (in Norwegian). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. p. 43.
203.^ "Be "Intensely Occupied" With Your Ministry". 'Our Kingdom Ministry: 3. April 2001. "If a person is making progress and has studied the Require brochure and the Knowledge book, the Bible study may be continued in a second book—either the God’s Word book, the True Peace book, or the United in Worship book. Your goal is to help the student achieve greater insight into the truth, qualify as an unbaptized publisher, and become a dedicated and baptized Witness of Jehovah."
204.^ Bearing Thorough Witness About God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 2009, page 63, "Do you obey the command to bear thorough witness, even if the assignment causes you some apprehension?"
205.^ "Determined to bear thorough witness," The Watchtower, December 15, 2008, page 19, "When the resurrected Jesus spoke to disciples gathered in Galilee, likely 500 of them, he commanded: 'Go therefore and make disciples of people of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the holy spirit, teaching them to observe all the things I have commanded you.' That command applies to all true Christians today."
206.^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 52. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7.
207.^ "Do You Contribute to an Accurate Report?", Our Kingdom Ministry, December 2002, page 8, "Jehovah’s organization today instructs us to report our field service activity each month ... At the end of the month, the book study overseer makes sure that all in the group have followed through on their responsibility to report their activity."
208.^ "Regularity in Service Brings Blessings", Our Kingdom Ministry, May 1984, page 7.
209.^ "Helping Irregular Publishers". Our Kingdom Ministry: 7. December 1987.
210.^ "Keep the Word of Jehovah Moving Speedily". Our Kingdom Ministry: 1. October 1982.
211.^ Chryssides, G.D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 103. ISBN 0-304-33651-3.
212.^ a b "Imitate Jehovah—Exercise Justice and Righteousness", The Watchtower, August 1, 1998, page 16.
213.^ a b Holden & 2002 Portrait, pp. 26–27, 173
214.^ Penton 1997, pp. 152, 180
215.^ "The Bible's Viewpoint What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?". Awake!: 26. July 8, 2004.
216.^ "Christian Weddings That Bring Joy". The Watchtower: 11. 15 April 1984.
217.^ Shepherd the Flock of God. pp. 37–38, 124–125.
218.^ "How should individual Christians and the congregation as a whole view the Bible advice to marry "only in the Lord"?". The Watchtower: 31. 15 March 1982.
219.^ Penton 1997, pp. 110–112
220.^ "Adultery". Insight on the Scriptures 1. p. 53.
221.^ "Marriage—Why Many Walk Out", Awake!, July 8, 1993, page 6, "A legal divorce or a legal separation may provide a measure of protection from extreme abuse or willful nonsupport."
222.^ "When Marital Peace Is Threatened". The Watchtower: 22. 1 November 1988.
223.^ Beckford 1975, pp. 54–55
224.^ Penton 1997, pp. 106–108
225.^ a b c Osamu Muramoto (August 1998). "Bioethics of the refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses: Part 1. Should bioethical deliberation consider dissidents' views?". Journal of Medical Ethics 24 (4): 223–230. doi:10.1136/jme.24.4.223. PMC 1377670. PMID 9752623.
226.^ The Watchtower April 15, 1988.
227.^ Jehovah's Witnesses Official Media Web Site: Our History and Organization, "Do you shun former members? ... If, however, someone unrepentantly practices serious sins, such as drunkenness, stealing or adultery, he will be disfellowshipped and such an individual is avoided by former fellow-worshipers. ... The marriage relationship and normal family affections and dealings can continue. ... Disfellowshipped individuals may continue to attend religious services and, if they wish, they may receive spiritual counsel from the elders with a view to their being restored. They are always welcome to return to the faith [emphasis retained from source]"
228.^ "Display Christian Loyalty When a Relative Is Disfellowshipped". Our Kingdom Ministry: 3–4. August 2002.
229.^ "Disfellowshipping-How to View It". The Watchtower: 24. 15 September 1981.
230.^ "Appendix: How to Treat a Disfellowshipped person". Keep Yourselves in God's Love. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2008. pp. 207–209.
231.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 163
232.^ "Disfellowshiping—How to View It", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, page 23.
233.^ "Do You Hate Lawlessness?", The Watchtower, February 15, 2011, page 31.
234.^ Franz, Raymond. Crisis of Conscience. p. 358.
235.^ Shepherd the Flock of God. Watch Tower Society. p. 119.
236.^ "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, January 1, 1983 pp. 30–31.
237.^ "Should the Religions Unite?". The Watchtower: 741–742. 15 December 1953.
238.^ "Is Interfaith God's Way?". The Watchtower: 69. 1 February 1952.
239.^ Beckford 1975, p. 202, "The ideological argument states that, since absolute truth is unitary and exclusive of all relativisation, there can only 'logically' be one human organization to represent it. Consequently, all other religious organizations are in error and are to be strictly avoided. The absolutist view of truth further implies that, since anything less than absolute truth can only corrupt and destroy it, there can be no justification for Jehovah's witnesses having any kind of association with other religionists, however sincere the motivation might be."
240.^ "15 Worship That God Approves". What Does The Bible Really Teach?. p. 145.
241.^ Reasoning From the Scriptures, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1989, pages 435–436.
242.^ "Live a Balanced, Simple Life", The Watchtower, July 15, 1989, page 11.
243.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 12
244.^ "Keep Your Distance When Danger Threatens". The Watchtower: 23. February 15, 1994. "Steering Clear of Danger ... We must also be on guard against extended association with worldly people. Perhaps it is a neighbor, a school friend, a workmate, or a business associate. ... What are some of the dangers of such a friendship? We could begin to minimize the urgency of the times we live in or take a growing interest in material rather than spiritual things. Perhaps, because of a fear of displeasing our worldly friend, we would even desire to be accepted by the world."
245.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, pp. 109–112
246.^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 409. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
247.^ ""Each One Will Carry His Own Load", The Watchtower, March 15, 2006, page 23.
248.^ Bryan R. Wilson, "The Persistence of Sects", Diskus, Journal of the British Association for the Study of Religions, Vol 1, No. 2, 1993, "They have extensive contact with the wider public, [in Britain in 1989, 108,000 publishers undertook 23 million hours of house-calls]. Yet, they remain little affected by that exposure—they confine their contacts to their single-minded purpose and avoid all other occasions for association."
249.^ Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, November 1, 1999, p. 28,"As to whether they will personally vote for someone running in an election, each one of Jehovah's Witnesses makes a decision based on his Bible-trained conscience and an understanding of his responsibility to God and to the State."
250.^ Questions From Readers, The Watchtower, March 1, 1983, p. 30
251.^ Reasoning From The Scriptures p. 178 Holidays
252.^ The Watchtower 8/15/09 p. 22 par. 20 “Keep Yourselves in God’s Love”
253.^ The Watchtower 9/15/68 p. 573 par 6 "The Seriousness of It"
254.^ The Watchtower 10/15/92 p. 18 par. 21 "Work to Preserve Your Family Into God’s New World"
255.^ Worship the Only True God, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 2002, p. 159.
256.^ Korea government promises to adopt alternative service system for conscientious objectors
257.^ Education, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 2002, pp. 20–23
258.^ Owens, Gene (September 1997). "Trials of a Jehovah's Witness.(The Faith of Journalists)". Nieman Reports.
259.^ Racial and ethnic unity Jehovah’s Witnesses Official Media Web Site
260.^ Ronald Lawson, "Sect-state relations: Accounting for the differing trajectories of Seventh-Day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses", Sociology of Religion, Winter 1995, "The urgency of the Witness's apocalyptic has changed very little over time. The intellectual isolation of the Witness leaders has allowed them to retain their traditional position, and it is they who continue to be the chief purveyors of the radical eschataology ....This commitment (to principle) was bolstered by their organizational isolation, intense indoctrination of adherents, rigid internal discipline, and considerable persecution."
261.^ Penton 1997, p. i
262.^ Reasoning From the Scriptures, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1989, pages 70–75.
263.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 91
264.^ Muramoto, O. (January 6, 2001). "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses". BMJ 322 (7277): 37–39. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37. PMC 1119307. PMID 11141155.
265.^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1993, page 183.
266.^ United in Worship of the Only True God, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1983, pages 156–160.
267.^ Bowman, R. M.; Beisner, E. C. , Ehrenborg, T. (1995). Jehovah's Witnesses. Zondervan. p. 13. ISBN 0-310-70411-1.
268.^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 29–30. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7.
269.^ "How Blood Can Save Your Life," Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, pages 13–17
270.^ "Questions From Readers—Do Jehovah's Witnesses accept any medical products derived from blood?". The Watchtower: 30. June 15, 2000.
271.^ Sniesinski et al.; Chen, EP; Levy, JH; Szlam, F; Tanaka, KA (April 2007). "Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah's Witness Patients: Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa" (PDF). Anesthesia & Analgesia 104 (4): 763–5. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3. PMID 17377078. Retrieved 2008–12–30.
272.^ "The Real Value of Blood". Awake!: 11. August 2006.
273.^ Durable Power of Attorney form. Watch Tower Society. January 2001. p. 1. Examples of permitted fractions are: Interferon, Immune Serum Globulins and Factor VIII; preparations made from Hemoglobin such as PolyHeme and Hemopure. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: cell salvage, hemodilution, heart lung machine, dialysis, epidural blood patch, plasmapheresis, blood labeling or tagging and platelet gel (autologous)
274.^ Our Kingdom Ministry (PDF). November 2006. pp. 5–6. Retrieved 2009–06–21.
275.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses and Medical Profession Cooperate". The Awake. November 22 2003. Retrieved 2009–10–24.
276.^ Kim Archer, "Jehovah's Witness liaisons help surgeons adapt", Tulsa World, May 15, 2007.
277.^ Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. Watch Tower Society. 1996–2013.
278.^ U.S. Religious Landscape Survey Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic. Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. February 2008. pp. 9, 30.
279.^ The Association of Religion Data Archives
280.^ David Van Biema, "America's Unfaithful Faithful," Time magazine, February 25, 2008.
281.^ PEW Forum on Religion and Public Life. U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic. The next lowest retention rates, excluding those raised unaffiliated with any church, were Buddhism at 50% and Catholicism at 68%.
282.^ Beckford 1975, pp. 92, 98–100
283.^ Beckford 1975, pp. 196–207
284.^ Bryan R. Wilson, "The Persistence of Sects", Diskus, Journal of the British Association for the Study of Religions, Vol 1, No. 2, 1993
285.^ "Comparisons". U.S. Religious Landscape Survey. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 15 August 2012.
286.^ Jubber, Ken (1977). "The Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Southern Africa". Social Compass, 24 (1): 121,. doi:10.1177/003776867702400108.
287.^ Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's witnesses and the third reich. Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 376. ISBN 0802086780.
288.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 484. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
289.^ Shulman, William L. A State of Terror: Germany 1933–1939. Bayside, New York: Holocaust Resource Center and Archives.
290.^ Holocaust Education Foundation website.
291.^ Hesse, Hans (2001). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime. Edition Temmen. p. 12. ISBN 3-86108-750-2.
292.^ Kaplan, William (1989). State and Salvation. Toronto: Univ. of Toronto Press.
293.^ Yaffee, Barbara (1984–09–09). Witnesses Seek Apology for Wartime Persecution. The Globe in Mail. p. 4.
294.^ Валерий Пасат ."Трудные страницы истории Молдовы (1940–1950)". Москва: Изд. Terra, 1994 (Russian)
295.^ "Jehovah’s Witnesses—Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom",chapter 22,page.490
296.^ "Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses 1991",page.221
297.^ Claims that Jehovah's Witnesses chose a deliberate course of martyrdom are contained in:
Peters, Shawn Francis (2000). Judging Jehovah's Witnesses: Religious Persecution and the Dawn of the Rights Revolution. University Press of Kansas. pp. 82, 116–9. ISBN 0-7006-1008-1.
 Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Visions of Glory, 1978, chapter 6.
Whalen, William J. (1962). Armageddon Around the Corner: A Report on Jehovah's Witnesses. New York: John Day Company. p. 190.
Schnell, William (1971). 30 Years a Watchtower Slave. Baker Book House, Grand Rapids. pp. 104–106. ISBN 0-8010-6384-1.
298.^ Advice for Kingdom Publishers(1939), Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, Brooklyn, N.Y.
299.^ Gary Botting, Fundamental Freedoms and Jehovah's Witnesses (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1993)
300.^ Jehovah’s Witnesses—Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, 1993, pp. 679–701.
301.^ Botting, Fundamental Freedoms and Jehovah's Witnesses, pp. 1–14; Shawn Francis Peters, Judging Jehovah's Witnesses, University Press of Kansas: 2000, pages 12–16.
302.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses and civil rights". Knocking.org. Retrieved 16 August 2012.
303.^ Botting, Fundamental Freedoms..., pp. 15–201
304.^ "Following Faithful Shepherds with Life in View", The Watchtower, October 1, 1967, page 591, "Make haste to identify the visible theocratic organization of God that represents his king, Jesus Christ. It is essential for life. Doing so, be complete in accepting its every aspect ... in submitting to Jehovah's visible theocratic organization, we must be in full and complete agreement with every feature of its apostolic procedure and requirements."
305.^ "Loyal to Christ and His Faithful Slave", The Watchtower, April 1, 2007, page 24, "When we loyally submit to the direction of the faithful slave and its Governing Body, we are submitting to Christ, the slave's Master."
306.^ a b Beckford 1975, pp. 89, 95, 103, 120, 204, 221
307.^ "Exposing the Devil's Subtle Designs" and "Armed for the Fight Against Wicked Spirits", The Watchtower, January 15, 1983
308.^ "Serving Jehovah Shoulder to Shoulder", The Watchtower, August 15, 1981, page 28.
309.^ "Jehovah's Theocratic Organization Today",The Watchtower, February 1, 1952, pages 79–81.
310.^ "Avoid Independent Thinking". The Watchtower: 27. 15 January 1983. "From the very outset of his rebellion Satan called into question God's way of doing things. He promoted independent thinking. ... How is such independent thinking manifested? A common way is by questioning the counsel that is provided by God's visible organization."
311.^ "Avoid Independent Thinking". The Watchtower: 20. February 15, 1979. "In a world where people are tossed about by confusing winds of religious doctrine, Jehovah's people need to be stable, full-grown Christians. (Eph. 4:13, 14) Their position must be steadfast, not shifting quickly because of independent thinking or emotional pressures."
312.^ The Watchtower: 277–278. May 1, 1964. "It is through the columns of The Watchtower that Jehovah provides direction and constant Scriptural counsel to his people, and it requires careful study and attention to details in order to apply this information, to get a full understanding of the principles involved, and to assure ourselves of right thinking on these matters. It is in this way that we "are thoroughly able to grasp mentally with all the holy ones" the fullness of our commission and of the preaching responsibility that Jehovah has placed on all Christians as footstep followers of his Son. Any other course would produce independent thinking and cause division."
313.^ a b Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 163
314.^ See also Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, pg. 358.
315.^ "Will You Heed Jehovah’s Clear Warnings?", The Watchtower, July 15, 2011, page 15, "apostates are 'mentally diseased,' and they seek to infect others with their disloyal teachings. (1 Tim. 6:3, 4)."
316.^ The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984, passim.
317.^ Alan Rogerson, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, Constable, 1969, page 50.
318.^ Beckford 1975, pp. 204, 221, The habit of questioning or qualifying Watch Tower doctrine is not only under-developed among the Witnesses: it is strenuously combated at all organizational levels
319.^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 90. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. "Most Witnesses, although capable of intelligent, reasonable thought, have as part of the payment for paradise delegated authority to the organization for directing their lives ... and finally abrogate all responsibility and rights over their personal lives—in effect, allowing the society to do their thinking for them."
320.^ Alan Rogerson, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, Constable, 1969, page 178, "The newly converted Witness must conform immediately to the doctrines of the Watchtower Society, thus whatever individuality of mind he possessed before conversion is liable to be eradicated if he stays in the movement.".
321.^ James A. Beverley, Crisis of Allegiance, Welch Publishing Company, Burlington, Ontario, 1986, ISBN 0-920413-37-4, pages 25–26, 101.
322.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 153
323.^ Alan Rogerson, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, Constable, 1969, page 2, "In addition to the prevalent ignorance outside the Witness movement, there is much ignorance within it. It will soon become obvious to the reader that the Witnesses are an indoctrinated people whose beliefs and thoughts are shaped by the Watchtower Society."
324.^ a b R. Franz, "In Search of Christian Freedom", chapter 12
325.^ a b The Watchtower (8/15). August 1988.
326.^ The Routledge History of the Holocaust, Routledge, 2010, "Labeling the Jehovah's Witnesses as totalitarian trivializes the term totalitarian and defames the Jehovah's Witnesses."
327.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, pp. x, 7
328.^ Penton 1997, p. 174–176
329.^ Haas, Samuel; Hauptmann, O. H. (December 1955). "Escorial Bible I.j.4: Vol. I; the Pentateuch". Journal of Biblical Literature (Society of Biblical Literature) 74 (4): 283. doi:10.2307/3261682. "This work indicates a great deal of effort and thought as well as considerable scholarship, it is to be regretted that religious bias was allowed to colour many passages"
330.^ See Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, 2003, The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses, accessible online
331.^ Rhodes R, The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions, The Essential Guide to Their History, Their Doctrine, and Our Response, Zondervan, 2001, p. 94
332.^ Bruce M Metzger, "Jehovah's Witnesses and Jesus Christ," Theology Today, (April 1953 p. 74); see also Metzger, "The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures," The Bible Translator (July 1964)
333.^ H.H. Rowley, How Not To Translate the Bible, The Expository Times, 1953; 65; 41
334.^ a b Jason BeDuhn (2003). Truth in Translation: Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament. University Press of America. ISBN 0-7618-2556-8.
335.^ G. Hébert/eds., "Jehovah's Witnesses", The New Catholic Encyclopedia, Gale, 20052, Vol. 7, p. 751.
336.^ Metzger, Bruce M., The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures, The Bible Translator 15/3 (July 1964), pp. 150–153. UBS
337.^ "God's Name and the New Testament", The Divine Name That Will Endure Forever, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1984, pages 23, 27.
338.^ "Messengers of Godly Peace Pronounced Happy", The Watchtower, May 1, 1997, page 21
339.^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 708.
340.^ "Execution of the "Great Harlot" Nears", The Watchtower, October 15, 1980, page 17.
341.^ "What Jehovah’s Day Will Reveal", The Watchtower, July 15, 2010, page 5.
342.^ The Watchtower, July 15, 1960, page 444, "In 1942 the faithful and discreet slave guided by Jehovah's unerring spirit made known that the democracies would win World War II and that there would be a United Nations organization set up ... Once again the faithful and discreet slave has been tipped off ahead of time for the guidance of all lovers of God." (Footnote cites the booklet Peace—Can It Last, 1942, pages 21,22.)
343.^ The Watchtower, Jan. 15, 1959, pp. 39–41
344.^ Crompton, Robert (1996). Counting the Days to Armageddon. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. pp. 9, 115. ISBN 0-227-67939-3.
345.^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1993, pages 78, 632.
346.^ Beckford 1975, pp. 219–221
347.^ James A. Beverley, Crisis of Allegiance, Welch Publishing Company, Burlington, Ontario, 1986, ISBN 0-920413-37-4, page 86–91.
348.^ a b "Why So Many False Alarms?", Awake!, March 22, 1993, pages 3–4, footnote.
349.^ Revelation—Its Grand Climax, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, page 9.
350.^ "False Prophets—Have not Jehovah's Witnesses made errors in their teachings?". Reasoning From the Scriptures. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society. p. 137.
351.^ "To Whom Shall We Go but Jesus Christ?". Watchtower: 23. March 1, 1979. "the “faithful and discreet slave” has alerted all of God’s people to the sign of the times indicating the nearness of God’s Kingdom rule. In this regard, however, it must be observed that this “faithful and discreet slave” was never inspired, never perfect. Those writings by certain members of the “slave” class that came to form the Christian part of God’s Word were inspired and infallible [the bible], but that is not true of other writings since."
352.^ George D. Chryssides (2008). Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. xiv.
353.^ Holden & 2002 Portrait, p. 7
354.^ "Another Church Sex Scandal" (April 29, 2003). CBS News.
355.^ Cutrer, Corrie (March 5, 2001). "Witness Leaders Accused of Shielding Molesters", Christianity Today.
356.^ Channel 9 Sunday, November 2005.
357.^ "Secret database protects paedophiles", BBC Panorama, 2003.
358.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses and Child Protection". Jehovah's Witnesses Official Media Web Site. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 1997. Retrieved 2010–03–13. See to confirm date.
359.^ "To all Bodies of Elders in the United States". WTBS. 1995–08–01. Retrieved 2010–03–13.[dead link]
360.^ Pay Attention to Yourselves and to All the Flock. Brooklyn, New York: Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 1977. p. 138.
361.^ "Let Us ABHOR What Is Wicked". The Watchtower: 27–29. 1997–01–01. Retrieved 2010–03–13.
362.^ Jehovah’s Witnesses Told to Pay in Abuse Case
363.^ Woman molested by Jehovah's Witnesses member at age NINE wins $28million in America's BIGGEST religious sex abuse payout
364.^ Amended judgment, page 2 (TIF image).
365.^ Case documents
Further reading
For more details on this topic, see Bibliography of Jehovah's Witnesses.
Botting, Gary (1993). Fundamental Freedoms and Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Calgary Press. ISBN 1-895176-06-9.
Botting, Heather and Gary (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7.
Chryssides, George D. (2008). Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-6074-0.
Crompton, Robert. Counting the Days to Armageddon. James Clarke & Co, Cambridge, 1996. ISBN 0-227-67939-3 A detailed examination of the development of Jehovah's Witnesses' eschatology.
Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26609-2. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon.
Kaplan, William. State and Salvation Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8020-5842-6 Documents the Witnesses' fight for civil rights in Canada and the US amid political persecution during World War II.
Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3. Penton, professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge and a former member of the religion, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines.
Rogerson, Alan. Millions Now Living Will Never Die. London: Constable & Co, 1969. ISBN 978-0094559400 Detailed history of the Watch Tower movement, particularly its early years, a summary of Witness doctrines and the organizational and personal framework in which Witnesses conduct their lives.
Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) Official history of Jehovah's Witnesses.
Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Faith In Action (2-DVD series), (2010–2011) Official history of Jehovah's Witnesses.

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Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania

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"Watch Tower Society" redirects here. For related corporations, including the Watchtower Society of New York, see Corporations of Jehovah's Witnesses.
Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
Watchtower.svg
Predecessor(s)
Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society
Founded
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (December 15, 1884)
Founder(s)
Charles Taze Russell
Headquarters
Brooklyn, New York,
 United States
Part of a series on
Jehovah's Witnesses

Overview

Organizational structure
Governing Body
Watch Tower Bible
 and Tract Society
Corporations
 
History
Bible Student movement
Leadership dispute
Splinter groups
Doctrinal development
Unfulfilled predicitions
 
Demographics
By country
 

Beliefs·
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Salvation·
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The 144,000
Faithful and discreet slave
Hymns·
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Literature

The Watchtower·
 Awake!

New World Translation
List of publications
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Kingdom Hall·
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People

Watch Tower presidents

W. H. Conley·
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J. F. Rutherford·
 N. H. Knorr
 
F. W. Franz·
 M. G. Henschel

D. A. Adams
 
Formative influences

William Miller·
 Henry Grew
 
George Storrs·
 N. H. Barbour

 
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The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania is a non-stock, not-for-profit organization[1] headquartered in the New York City borough of Brooklyn, United States. It is the main legal entity used worldwide by Jehovah's Witnesses to direct, administer and develop doctrines for the religion and is often referred to by members of the religion simply as "the Society". It is the parent organization of a number of Watch Tower subsidiaries, including the Watchtower Society of New York and International Bible Students Association.[2] Membership of the society is limited to between 300 and 500 "mature, active and faithful" male Jehovah's Witnesses.[3] About 5800 Jehovah's Witnesses provide voluntary unpaid labour, as members of a religious order, in three large Watch Tower Society facilities in New York;[4] nearly 15,000 other members of the order work at the Watch Tower Society's other facilities worldwide.[4][5][6]
The organization was formed in 1881,[1] as Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society, for the purpose of distributing religious tracts. The society was incorporated in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania on December 15, 1884. In 1896, the society was renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.[7] Following a leadership dispute in the Bible Student movement, the Watch Tower Society remained associated with the branch of the movement that became known as Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1955, the corporation was renamed Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania.[8] In 1976, all activities of the Watch Tower Society were brought under the supervision of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.[9]

Contents
  [hide] 1 History 1.1 Incorporation
1.2 Leadership dispute
1.3 Amendments to Charter
1.4 Governing Body
1.5 Presidents
2 Operations
3 Property ownership 3.1 United States 3.1.1 Brooklyn property sales
3.2 Other countries
4 Directors 4.1 Current
4.2 Former
5 Criticism
6 See also
7 References
8 Bibliography

History[edit]
On February 16, 1881 Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was formed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, for the purpose of organizing the printing and distribution of religious tracts. William Henry Conley, a Pittsburgh industrialist and philanthropist, served as president, with Charles Taze Russell serving as secretary-treasurer.[10] The society's primary journal was Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christs Presence, first published in 1879 by Russell,[11] founder of the Bible Student movement.[12] Other early writers for the Watch Tower Society included J. H Paton and W. I. Mann.[10][13] Formation of the society was announced in the April 1881 issue of Zion's Watch Tower.[14] That year, the society received donations of $35,391.18.[15]
Incorporation[edit]
On December 15, 1884, the society was incorporated as Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society in Pennsylvania as a non-profit, non-stock corporation with Russell as president. The corporation was located in Allegheny, Pennsylvania. In its charter, written by Russell, the society's purpose was stated as "the mental, moral and religious improvement of men and women, by teaching the Bible by means of the publication and distribution of Bibles, books, papers, pamphlets and other Bible literature, and by providing oral lectures free for the people".[16] The charter provided for a board of seven directors, three of who served as officers—a president, vice-president (initially William I. Mann) and secretary-treasurer (initially Maria Russell). The charter stipulated that the officers be chosen from the directors and be elected annually by ballot. Board members would hold office for life unless removed by a two-thirds vote by shareholders. Vacancies on the board resulting from death, resignation or removal would be filled by a majority vote of the remaining board members within 20 days; if such vacancies were not filled within 30 days an appointment could be made by the president, with the appointments lasting only until the next annual corporation meeting, when vacancies would be filled by election.[17]
Anyone subscribing to $10 or more of the society's Old Testament Tracts or donating $10 or more to the society was deemed a voting member and entitled to one vote per $10 donated.[17] Russell indicated that despite having a board and shareholders, the society would be directed by only two people—him and his wife Maria.[18] Russell said that as at December 1893 he and his wife owned 3705, or 58 percent, of the 6383 voting shares, "and thus control the Society; and this was fully understood by the directors from the first. Their usefulness, it was understood, would come to the front in the event of our death ... For this reason, also, formal elections were not held; because it would be a mere farce, a deception, to call together voting shareholders from all over the world, at great expense, to find upon arrival that their coming was useless, Sister Russell and myself having more than a majority over all that could gather. However, no one was hindered from attending such elections." The influx of donations gradually diluted the proportion of the Russells' shares and in 1908 their voting shares constituted less than half the total.[19][20] Russell emphasized the limitations of the corporation, explaining: "Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society is not a 'religious society' in the ordinary meaning of this term"[21] He also stated, "This is a business association merely ... It has no creed or confession. It is merely a business convenience in disseminating the truth."[17] Incorporation of the society meant that it would outlive Russell, so individuals who wished to bequeath their money or property to him would not have to alter their will if he died before they did.[22] On September 19, 1896 the name of the corporation was changed to Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.[23]

 

Charles Taze Russell
From 1908 Russell required the directors to write out resignations when they were appointed so Russell could dismiss them by simply filling in the date.[19] In 1909 Russell instructed legal counsel Joseph Franklin Rutherford to determine whether the society's headquarters could be moved to Brooklyn, New York.[24] Rutherford reported that because it had been established under Pennsylvania law, the corporation could not be registered in New York state, but suggested that a new corporation be registered there to do the society's work. Rutherford subsequently organized the formation of the People's Pulpit Association, which was incorporated on February 23, 1909,[25] and wrote the charter, which gave the president—who would be elected for life at the first meeting—"absolute power and control" of its activities in New York.[24] The society sold its buildings in Pittsburgh[26] and moved staff to its new base in Brooklyn. Although all New York property was bought in the name of the New York corporation and all legal affairs of the society done in its name, Russell insisted on the continued use of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society name on all correspondence and publications.[24]
The move from Pennsylvania to New York occurred during court proceedings over the breakdown of Russells' marriage. His wife Maria had been granted a "limited divorce" on March 4, 1908, but in 1909 returned to court in Pittsburgh to request an increase in alimony,[27] which her former husband refused.[28] Authors Barbara Grizzuti Harrison and Edmond C. Gruss have claimed Russell's move to Brooklyn was motivated by his desire to transfer from the jurisdiction of the Pennsylvania courts. They claim he transferred all his assets to the Watch Tower Society so he could declare himself bankrupt and avoid being jailed for failure to pay alimony.[27][29][30]
In 1914 the International Bible Students Association was incorporated in Britain to administer affairs in that country. Like the People's Pulpit Association, it was subsidiary to the Pennsylvania parent organization and all work done through both subsidiaries was described as the work of the Watch Tower Society. The Watchtower noted: "The editor of The Watchtower is the President of all three of these Societies. All financial responsibility connected with the work proceeds from (the Pennsylvania corporation). From it the other Societies and all the branches of the work receive their financial support ... we use sometimes the one name and sometimes the other in various parts of our work – yet they all in the end mean the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, to which all donations should be made."[2]
Leadership dispute[edit]
Main article: Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)
Russell died on October 31, 1916, in Pampa, Texas during a cross-country preaching trip. On January 6, 1917, board member and society legal counsel Joseph Franklin Rutherford, aged 47, was elected president of the Watch Tower Society, unopposed, at the Pittsburgh convention. Under his presidency, the role of the society underwent a major change.[31] By-laws passed by both the Pittsburgh convention and the board of directors stated that the president would be the executive officer and general manager of the society, giving him full charge of its affairs worldwide.[32]

 

Joseph Franklin Rutherford
By June, four of the seven Watch Tower Society directors—Robert H. Hirsh, Alfred I. Ritchie, Isaac F. Hoskins and James D. Wright—had decided they had erred in endorsing Rutherford's expanded powers of management,[33] claiming Rutherford had become autocratic.[33] In June Hirsch attempted to rescind the new by-laws and reclaim the powers of management from the president,[34] but Rutherford later claimed he had by then detected a conspiracy among the directors to seize control of the society.[35] In July Rutherford gained a legal opinion from a Philadelphia corporation lawyer that none of his opposers were legally directors of the society. On July 12, Rutherford filled what he claimed were four vacancies on the board, appointing A. H. Macmillan and Pennsylvania Bible Students W. E. Spill, J. A. Bohnet and George H. Fisher as directors.[36] Between August and November the society and the four ousted directors published a series of pamphlets, with each side accusing the other of ambitious and reckless behavior. The former directors also claimed Rutherford had required all headquarters workers to sign a petition supporting him and threatened dismissal for any who refused to sign.[37] The former directors left the Brooklyn headquarters on August 8.[38] On January 5, 1918, Rutherford was returned to office.
In May 1918, Rutherford and seven other Watch Tower directors and officers were arrested on charges of sedition under the Espionage Act. On June 21 they were sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. Rutherford feared his opponents would gain control of the Society in his absence, but on January 2, 1919 he learned he had been re-elected president at the Pittsburgh convention the day before.[39] However, by mid-1919 about one in seven Bible Students had chosen to leave rather than accept Rutherford's leadership,[40] forming groups such as The Standfast Movement, Paul Johnson Movement, Dawn Bible Students Association, Pastoral Bible Institute of Brooklyn, Elijah Voice Movement and Eagle Society.[41]
Although formed as a "business convenience" with the purpose of publishing and distributing Bible-based literature and managing the funds necessary for that task, the corporation from the 1920s began its transformation into the "religious society" Russell had insisted it was not, introducing centralized control and regulation of Bible Student congregations worldwide.[42] In 1938 Rutherford introduced the term "theocracy" to describe the hierarchical leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses, with Consolation explaining: "The Theocracy is at present administered by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, of which Judge Rutherford is the president and general manager."[43] The society appointed "zone servants" to supervise congregations and in a Watchtower article Rutherford declared the need for congregations to "get in line" with the changed structure.[44][45]
Amendments to Charter[edit]

 

Nathan Homer Knorr
 

Frederick William Franz
 

Milton George Henschel
 

Don Alden Adams
Following Rutherford's death in 1942, Nathan H. Knorr became president of the Watch Tower Society, and subsequently introduced further changes to the role of the society. At a series of talks given in Pittsburgh on September 30, 1944, coinciding with the society's annual meeting, it was announced that changes would be made to the 1884 charter to bring it into "closer harmony with theocratic principles". The amendments, most of which were passed unanimously,[46] significantly altered the terms of membership and stated for the first time that the society's purposes included preaching about God's kingdom, acting as a servant and governing agency of Jehovah's Witnesses, and sending missionaries and teachers for the public worship of God and Jesus Christ. The new charter, which took effect from January 1, 1945 included the following changes:
An altered and expanded explanation of article II, detailing the purpose of the society. This included the preaching of the gospel of God's kingdom to all nations; to print and distribute Bibles and disseminate Bible truths with literature explaining Bible truths and prophecy concerning the establishment of God's kingdom; to authorise and appoint agents, servants, employees, teachers evangelists, missionaries, ministers and others "to go all the world publicly and from house to house to preach Bible truths to persons willing to listen by leaving with such persons said literature and by conducting Bible studies thereon"; to improve people mentally and morally by instruction "on the Bible and incidental scientific, historical and literary subjects"; to establish and maintain Bible schools and classes; to "teach, train, prepare and equip men and women as ministers, missionaries, evangelists, preachers, teachers and instructors in the Bible and Bible literature, and for public Christian worship of Almighty God and Jesus Christ" and "to arrange for and hold local and worldwide assemblies for such worship".
An amendment to article V, detailing the qualifications for membership of the society. Each donation of $10 to the society funds had formerly entitled the contributor to one voting share; the amendment limited membership to "only men who are mature, active and faithful witnesses of Jehovah devoting full time to performance of one or more of its chartered purposes ... or such men who are devoting part time as active presiding ministers or servants of congregations of Jehovah's witnesses". The amended article stipulated that "a man who is found to be in harmony with the purposes of the Society and who possesses the above qualifications may be elected as a member upon being nominated by a member, director or officer, or upon written application to the President or Secretary. Such members shall be elected upon a finding by the Board of Directors that he possesses the necessary qualifications and by receiving a majority vote of the members ... " The amendment limited membership at any one time to between 300 and 500, including approximately seven residents of each of the 48 states of the US. It also introduced a clause providing for the suspension or expulsion of a member for wilfully violating the society's rules, or "becoming out of harmony with any of the Society's purposes or any of its work or for wilful conduct prejudicial to the best interests of the Society and contrary to his duties as a member, or upon ceasing to be a full-time servant of the Society or a part-time servant of a congregation of Jehovah's witnesses".
An amendment to article VII, dealing with the governance of the society by its board of directors. The amendment deleted reference to adherence to the constitution and laws of Pennsylvania of the US. It also specified powers of the board including matters of finance and property.
An amendment to article VIII, detailing the office holders of the society and the terms of office and method of appointment of officers and directors. A clause stating that board members would hold office for life was deleted. The new clause provided for board membership for a maximum of three years, with directors qualifying for re-election at the expiration of their term.[47]
Governing Body[edit]
In 1976, direction of the Watch Tower Society and of the congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide came under the control of the Governing Body, reducing the power of the society's president. The society has described the change as "one of the most significant organizational readjustments in the modern-day history of Jehovah's Witnesses."[48]
Following the death of Knorr in 1977, subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society have been Frederick W. Franz (June 1977 – December 1992); Milton G. Henschel (December 1992 – October 2000) and Don A. Adams (October 2000–).
Presidents[edit]

Name
Date of birth
Date of death
Started
Ended
William Henry Conley June 11, 1840 July 25, 1897 February 16, 1881 December, 1884
Incorporated
Charles Taze Russell February 16, 1852 October 31, 1916 December 15, 1884 October 31, 1916
Joseph Franklin Rutherford November 8, 1869 January 8, 1942 January 6, 1917 January 8, 1942
Nathan Homer Knorr April 23, 1905 June 8, 1977 January 13, 1942 June 8, 1977
Frederick William Franz September 12, 1893 December 22, 1992 June 22, 1977 December 22, 1992
Milton George Henschel August 9, 1920 March 22, 2003 December 30, 1992 October 7, 2000
Don Alden Adams 1925 – October 7, 2000 incumbent
Operations[edit]
The corporation is a major publisher of religious publications, including books, tracts, magazines and Bibles. By 1979, the society had 39 printing branches worldwide. In 1990 it was reported that in one year the society printed 696 million copies of its magazines, The Watchtower and Awake! as well as another 35,811,000 pieces of literature worldwide, which are offered door-to-door by Jehovah's Witnesses.[49] As of 2013, the Society prints more than 43 million of its public issues of these magazines each month, totaling over 1 billion annually.
The society describes its headquarters and branch office staff as volunteers rather than employees,[4] and identifies them as members of the Worldwide Order of Special Full-Time Servants of Jehovah's Witnesses.[5] Workers receive a small monthly stipend[50] with meals and accommodation provided by the society. The "Bethel family" in the Brooklyn headquarters includes hairdressers, dentists, doctors, housekeepers and carpenters, as well as shops for repairing personal appliances, watches, shoes and clothing without charge for labor.[51]
The society files no publicly accessible financial figures, but reported in 2011 that it had spent more than $173 million that year "in caring for special pioneers, missionaries and traveling overseers in their field service assignments".[5][52] Donations obtained from the distribution of literature is a major source of income, most of which is used to promote its evangelical activities.[53]
Author James Beckford has claimed the status of voting members of the society is purely symbolic. He said they cannot be considered to be representatives of the mass of Jehovah's Witnesses and are in no position to challenge the actions or authority of the society's directors.[54]
Property ownership[edit]
United States[edit]
The corporation was first located at 44 Federal St, Allegheny, Pennsylvania (the city was annexed by Pittsburgh in 1907), but in 1889 moved to "Bible House", newly built premises at 56–60 Arch St, Allegheny, owned by Russell's privately owned Tower Publishing Company. The new building contained an assembly hall seating about 200, as well as editorial, printing and shipping facilities and living quarters for some staff.[55] The title for the building was transferred in April 1898 to the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
In 1909 the society moved its base to Brooklyn. A four-story brownstone parsonage formerly owned by Congregationalist clergyman and social reformer Henry Ward Beecher at 124 Columbia Heights was converted to a residence for a headquarters staff of 30, as well as an office for Russell. A former Plymouth church building at 13–17 Hicks St was also purchased and converted into Watch Tower headquarters, with room for 350 staff. It contained an 800-seat assembly hall, shipping department and printing facilities.[56] The Watch Tower announced: "The new home we shall call 'Bethel,' and the new office and auditorium, 'The Brooklyn Tabernacle'; these names will supplant the term 'Bible House.'"[57] In October 1909 an adjoining building at 122 Columbia Heights was bought.[58] In 1911 a new nine-story residential block was built at the rear of the headquarters, fronting on Furman St and overlooking the Brooklyn waterfront.[56] The Brooklyn Tabernacle was sold in 1918 or 1919.[59]
Printing facilities were established in Myrtle St, Brooklyn in 1920 and from the February 1, 1920 issue The Watch Tower was printed by the society at the plant. Two months later the plant began printing The Golden Age. In 1922 the printing factory was moved to a six-story building at 18 Concord St, Brooklyn; four years later it moved again to larger premises, a new eight-story building at 117 Adams St, Brooklyn, at which time the society's headquarters was rebuilt and enlarged. In December 1926 a building at 126 Columbia Heights was bought, and a month later the three buildings from 122–126 Columbia Heights were demolished and rebuilt for accommodation and executive offices, using the official address of 124 Columbia Heights.[58]
In 1946, property surrounding the Adams St factory was bought to expand printing operations (when completed in 1949 the factory occupied an entire block bounded by Adams, Sands Pearl and Prospect Streets) and five more properties adjoining 124 Columbia Heights were purchased for a 10-story building.[60][61] In the late 1950s a property at 107 Columbia Heights, across the road from 124 Columbia Heights, was bought[62] and by 1960 a residential building for staff was constructed there.[63][64] More residences were built at 119 Columbia Heights in 1969.[64]
The Watchtower detailed further expansion in the 1950s and 1960s: "In 1956 a 13-story building was constructed at 77 Sands St. Then just across the street another (10-story building) was purchased in 1958. In 1968 an adjoining 11-story new printing factory was completed. Along with the factory at 117 Adams Street, these fill out four city blocks of factories that are all tied together by overhead bridges. Then, in November 1969, the Squibb complex, located a few blocks away, was purchased."[64]
The society bought the Towers Hotel at 79–99 Willow St in 1974 for accommodation,[65] which is connected to the society's other Columbia Heights properties via underground tunnels.[66] In 1978 a property at 25 Columbia Heights underwent renovation for use as offices[64] and in the early 1980s properties were bought at 175 Pearl St and 360 Furman St for factory and office use.[67] A building at 360 Furman St was bought in March 1983 and renovated, providing almost 9 hectares of floor space[65] for shipping, carpentry and construction.[68] The Bossert Hotel at 98 Montague St was also bought in 1983 as a residence building.[69] 97 Columbia Heights, the former site of the Margaret Hotel, was purchased in 1986[65] as it was ideally located next to WTBTS residences at 107 and 124 Columbia Heights and it could easily tie in with the main complex on the other side of the street by means of an under-street tunnel. An 11-story residential building was erected on the site to house 250 workers.[70][71] A property at 90 Sands St was also bought in December 1986 and a 30-story residential building[65] for 1000 workers was completed on the site in 1995. A 1996 publication listed other Watch Tower residential buildings in Brooklyn including the 12-story Bossert Hotel, 34 Orange St (1945), Standish Arms Hotel at 169 Columbia Heights (1981), 67 Livingston St (1989), and 108 Joralemon St (1988).[65]
Two properties known as Watchtower Farms, at Wallkill, 160 km north of Brooklyn and totaling 1200 hectares, were bought in 1963 and 1967 and factories erected in 1973 and 1975.[64] 2012-2014 the Society is adding an office building, residence building and garage.[72] In 1984 the society paid $2.1 million for a 270 hectare farm at Patterson, New York[73] for a development that would include 624 apartments, garages for 800 cars and a 149-room hotel.[74] Other rural purchases included a 220 hectare farm near South Lansing, New York and a 60 hectare farm near Port Murray, New Jersey.[73]
In February 2009 the society paid $11.5 million for 100 hectares of land in Ramapo, Rockland County, New York for an administration and residential complex.[75] The site was reported to be planned as a base for about 850 Watch Tower workers, creating a compound combining residential and publishing facilities currently located in Brooklyn. A Witness spokesman said the land was currently zoned for residential uses, but an application would be made to rezone it, adding that "Construction is several years in the future."[76]
A year later, the Society announced it planned to move its world headquarters from Brooklyn to a proposed eight-building complex, replacing the pre-existing four-building complex on a 100-hectare Watch Tower property in Warwick, New York,[72] 1.5 km from its Ramapo site.[77][78] A Watch Tower presentation to Warwick planning authorities said the complex would house up to 850 people.[79][80] In July 2012, the Warwick planning commission approved the environmental impact statement for building the Warwick site.[81][82] In July 2013, Warwick approved building plans of the multiple building complex of the new headquarters, including four residence buildings of 588 rooms for about 1,000 people.[83] In August 2011, a 50-acre property was bought in Tuxedo, NY, with 184,000 square foot building, for $3.2 million, six miles from the Warwick site to facilitate the staging of machinery and building materials.[84][85][86]The Society bought a 48-unit apartment building in Suffern, NY near Warwick, NY for housing temporary construction workers in June 2013.[87]
Brooklyn property sales[edit]

 

 Watch Tower headquarters in Columbia Heights, Brooklyn.
In 2004 the society began transferring its printing operations to its Wallkill factory complex.[88][89] The move triggered the sale of a number of Brooklyn factory and residential properties including:
360 Furman St, sold in 2004 for $205 million;[90]
67 Livingston St, (nicknamed the Sliver)[91] sold in 2006 for $18.6 million.[90]
89 Hicks St, sold in 2006 for $14 million.[90]
Standish Arms Hotel, 169 Columbia Heights, sold in 2007 for $50 million.[92]
183 Columbia Heights, bought in 1986, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in April 2012 for $6.6 million.[89][93][94]
161 Columbia Heights, bought in 1988, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in March 2012 for $3 million.[89][93]
165 Columbia Heights, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in January 2012 for $4.1 million.[89][95]
105 Willow St, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in April 2012 for $3.3 million.[89][96]
34 Orange St, offered for sale in 2007 and sold in November 2012 for $2,825,000.[89][97]
Bossert Hotel, 98 Montague St, bought in 1983,[69] offered for sale in 2008.[76] sold in 2012 to a hotel developer, Rosewood Realty Group, for $81 million.[98][99]
50 Orange St, bought in 1988, renovated to sell 2006, and sold in December 2011 for $7.1 million.[100]
67 Remsen St, offered for sale in July 2012,[101] and sold the same year for $3.25 million.[102]
Three adjoining properties (173 Front St, 177 Front St and 200 Water St) sold together for 30.6 million in April 2013 to Urban Realty Partners.[103][104]
55 Furman St, 400,000 sq. ft., is for sale as of June 2013.[105]
Five adjoining properties (175 Pearl St, 55 Prospect St, 81 Prospect St, 117 Adams St, and 77 Sands St totaling 700,000 sq. ft.), offered for sale in September 2011,[106][107] under contract as of July 2013 to a three company buy-out. A sixth building (90 Sands St., about 500,000 sq. ft., a 505 room, 30 story building) in this sale will be released in 2017, after the scheduled completion of the Jehovah's Witnesses' new headquarters in Warwick, NY. The properties are under contract for $375 million at completion of the sale.[105][108]
Two private parking lots are for sale as of June 2013.[105]
In 2011 the Watch Tower Society was reported to still own 34 properties in Brooklyn;[4][109] a 2009 report calculated "a dozen or more" properties in the Brooklyn area.[76] In a 2010 news report the Watch Tower Society said it was "not actively promoting" the sale of eight Brooklyn properties still on the market.[79] Four of the Watch Tower Society's remaining fourteen occupied Brooklyn properties are on the market.
Other countries[edit]
In 1900 the Watch Tower opened its first overseas branch office in Britain.[110] Germany followed in 1903[111] and Australia in 1904.[112] By 1979 the society had 39 printing branches throughout the world, with facilities transferred to farming properties in many countries including Brazil, Sweden, Denmark, Canada and Australia.[113] In 2011, the Watch Tower Society had 98 branch offices worldwide reporting to New York directly, other nations' offices report to large branches nearby.[114]
Directors[edit]
Current[edit]
Don Alden Adams, director since 2000, president since 2000
Danny L. Bland, director since 2000
William F. Malenfant, director since 2000, vice-president since 2000
Robert W. Wallen, director since 2000, vice-president since 2000
Philip D. Wilcox, director since 2000
John N. Wischuk, director since 2000
Former[edit]
Directors are listed generally from most to least recent. List may not be complete.
Richard E. Abrahamson (director 2000-2004, secretary-treasurer 2000-2004)
Milton George Henschel (director 1947–2000, vice-president 1977–1992, president 1992–2000)
Lyman Alexander Swingle (director 1945–2000)[115]
W. Lloyd Barry (director ?–1999, vice-president ?–1999)
Frederick William Franz (director 1945–1992, vice-president 1945–1977, president 1977–1992)[116]
Grant Suiter (director 1941–1983, secretary-treasurer)[117]
William K. Jackson (director 1973–1981)[118]
Nathan Homer Knorr (director 1940–1977, vice-president 1940–1942, president 1942–1977)[119]
John O. Groh (director 1965–1975)
Thomas J. Sullivan (director 1932–1973)[120][121]
Alexander Hugh Macmillan (director 1918–1938)
Hugo Henry Riemer (1943–1965)[122][123][124]
William Edwin Van Amburgh (director 1916–1947, secretary-treasurer)[125][126][127][128]
Hayden Cooper Covington (director 1940–1945, vice-president 1942–1945)[129]
Joseph Franklin Rutherford (director 1916–1942, acting president[130] 1916–1917, president 1917–1942)[131]
Charles A. Wise (director 1919–1940, vice-president 1919–1940)[132][133][134][135]
J. A. Baeuerlcin (director 1923 fl)[136]
R. H. Barber (director 1919)[137]
Charles H. Anderson (director 1918–?, vice-president 1918–1919)[131]
J. A. Bohnet (director 1917–?)[131]
George H. Fisher (director 1917–?)[131]
W. E. Spill (director 1917–?)[131]
Andrew N. Pierson (director 1916–1918, vice-president)[125]
Robert H. Hirsh (director 1917)
J. D. Wright (director fl1916–1917)[125]
Isaac F. Hoskins (director fl1916–1917)[125]
Alfred I. Ritchie (director 1916–1917, vice-president)[125][138]
Henry Clay Rockwell (director fl1916–1917)[125]
Charles Taze Russell (director 1884–1916, president 1884–1916)[139]
William M. Wright (?–1906)[140]
Henry Weber (director 1884–1904, vice-president 1884–1904)[141][142]
Maria Russell (née Ackley) (director 1884–1897, secretary-treasurer 1884–?, then-wife of Charles Taze Russell)[139][143][144]
J. B. Adamson (director 1884–?)[139]
Rose J. Ball (director 1884–?)[141]
Simon O. Blunden (director 1884–?)[141]
W. C. McMillan (director 1884–?)[139]
W. I. Mann (director 1884, vice-president 1884)[139]
J. F. Smith (director 1884)[139]
Criticism[edit]
Critics including Raymond Franz, Edmond C. Gruss and James Penton have accused the society of being authoritarian, controlling and coercive in its dealings with Witnesses. Franz, a former Governing Body member, has claimed the Watch Tower Society's emphasis of the term "theocratic organization" to describe the authority structure of Jehovah's Witnesses, which places God at the apex of its organization, is designed to exercise control over every aspect of the lives of Jehovah's Witnesses[145] and condition them to think it is wrong for them to question anything the society publishes as truth.[146][147] The Watch Tower Society has been accused of employing techniques of mind control on Witnesses including the direction to avoid reading criticism of the organization,[148][149] frequent and tightly controlled "indoctrination" meetings, regimentation, social alienation and elaborate promises of future rewards.[150][151] Apart from life stories, the authors of all Watch Tower Society magazine articles and other publications are anonymous and correspondence from the society does not typically indicate a specific author or personal signature.[152]
See also[edit]
Bible Student movement
Corporations of Jehovah's Witnesses
Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses
Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses
History of Jehovah's Witnesses
Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses
References[edit]
1.^ a b Pennsylvania Department of State.
2.^ a b Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, p. 49
3.^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. p. 229.
4.^ a b c d "Jehovahs loses comp case: Church may be forced to pay millions", New York Daily News, January 6, 2006. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
5.^ a b c Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 2009.
6.^ Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 2012, page 55.
7.^ "Report for Fiscal Year", Watch Tower, December 1, 1896, page 301, Reprints page 2077 Retrieved 2010-03-30, "WATCH TOWER BIBLE AND TRACT SOCIETY. REPORT FOR FISCAL YEAR ENDING DEC. 1, 1896. ALTHOUGH the above has been the recognized name of our Society for some four years, it was not until this year that the Board of Directors took the proper steps to have the name legally changed from ZION'S WATCH TOWER TRACT SOCIETY to that above. The new name seems to be in every way preferable."
8.^ "Development of the Organization Structure", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993 Watch Tower, page 229, "Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society. First formed in 1881 and then legally incorporated in the state of Pennsylvania on December 15, 1884. In 1896 its name was changed to Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. Since 1955 it has been known as Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania."
9.^ Franz 2007, pp. 80–107
10.^ a b Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, pp. 575–576
11.^ Zion's Watch Tower: 1. July 1879.
12.^ "Encyclopædia Britannica – Russell, Charles Taze"
13.^ Zion's Watch Tower, January 1881, Reprints page 1.]
14.^ Zion's Watch Tower, April 1881, Reprints page 214.
15.^ Zion's Watch Tower: 2. January 1882.
16.^ J.F. Rutherford, A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, 1915, p. 14.
17.^ a b c C.T. Russell, "A Conspiracy Exposed", Zion's Watch Tower Extra edition, April 25, 1894, page 55-60.
18.^ C.T. Russell, "A Conspiracy Exposed", Zion's Watch Tower Extra edition, April 25, 1894, page 55-60, "The affairs of the Society are so arranged that its entire control rests in the care of Brother and Sister Russell as long as they shall live. ... The fact is that, by the grace of God, Sister R. and myself have been enabled not only to give our own time without charge to the service of the truth, in writing and overseeing, but also to contribute more money to the Tract Society's fund for the scattering of the good tidings, than all others combined."
19.^ a b Wills 2006, p. 91
20.^ J.F. Rutherford, A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, 1915, p. 14., "While there are nearly two hundred thousand shares, and it would be an easy matter to elect some other man as president, there never has been cast a vote against Pastor Russell. At the last election he was absent, his own votes were not cast, yet more than one hundred thousand votes of others were cast for him as president."
21.^ Zion's Watch Tower, October 1894, page 330.
22.^ Wills 2006, pp. 75
23.^ Pierson et al 1917, p. 22
24.^ a b c Rutherford August 1917, p. 16
25.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, p. 48
26.^ Allegheny City was annexed by Pittsburgh in 1909.
27.^ a b Grizzuti Harrison 1978
28.^ Penton 1997, p. 39
29.^ Gruss 2003, p. 17
30.^ "Girl's midnight visit to Pastor Russell", Brooklyn Eagle, August 14, 1909, "His wife, whom he married 30 years ago, when she was Maria F. Ackley, obtained a limited divorce from him in Pittsburg on the ground of cruelty. The judge who decided for Mrs Russell granted her $100 a month alimony. Pastor Russell was slow in coming to the front with payments and finally stopped paying alimony altogether. An order was ordered for the pastor's arrest in Pittsburg, but Brooklyn is a comfortable enough place and Pastor Russell didn't like going back to Pittsburg where a yawning prison awaited him. He said that his friends had paid the alimony, anyhow, and that he was purged of contempt of court thereby."
31.^ Gruss 2003, pp. 25–27
32.^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 5,6
33.^ a b Pierson et al 1917, pp. 4
34.^ Rutherford August 1917, pp. 12
35.^ Rutherford August 1917, pp. 22–23
36.^ Rutherford August 1917, pp. 14,15
37.^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 9
38.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, pp. 68
39.^ Macmillan 1957, pp. 106
40.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1975, pp. 93–94
41.^ Rogerson 1969, pp. 39
42.^ Wills 2006, pp. 175, 176
43.^ Consolation, September 4, 1940, pg 25, as cited by Penton, pg. 61.
44.^ Wills 2006, pp. 201
45.^ Watchtower, June 15, 1938.
46.^ Amendments to articles II, III, VII, VIII and X were passed unanimously, with more than 225,000 votes cast; the amendments to article V of the Charter, affecting qualifications for membership of the society, were passed 225,255 to 47.
47.^ Articles of amendment to Watch Tower Society charter, February 15, 1945. Retrieved October 4, 2009.
48.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, pp. 108–109
49.^ Brooklyn Heights Press, March 15, 1990, page 1, as cited by Edmond C. Gruss, 2003, pages 72–73.
50.^ A 1990 news report stated that Brooklyn workers received $80 per month to buy personal needs. See "A sect grows in Brooklyn", Philadelphia Inquirer, August 2, 1990.
51.^ "A sect grows in Brooklyn", Philadelphia Inquirer, August 2, 1990.
52.^ Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 2012, page 55.
53.^ Penton 1997, p. 231
54.^ Beckford, James A. (1975). The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. p. 83. ISBN 0-631-16310-7.
55.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 27
56.^ a b Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 47–48
57.^ Watch Tower March 1, 1909, pages 67,68.
58.^ a b Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, p. 115
59.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 97
60.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 234
61.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 253–255
62.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 292
63.^ The Watchtower, September 1, 1989, page 29.
64.^ a b c d e The Watchtower, December 1, 1982, page 23.
65.^ a b c d e The Watchtower, April 15, 1996, page 24.
66.^ Awake!, April 22, 1989, pages 25–27; "In fact, the Towers, 124 Columbia Heights, 107 Columbia Heights, and 119 Columbia Heights, which accommodate nearly 2000 of the family, are connected by underground tunnels."
67.^ Centennial of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1984, pages 8–9.
68.^ "New Shipping Facilities of Jehovah’s Witnesses", Awake!, August 22, 1987, pages 16–18.
69.^ a b Jehovah's Witnesses sell the former Hotel Bossert
70.^ Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, page 25.
71.^ Awake 1989, April 22, pp 23-24
72.^ a b "Wallkill and Warwick Projects Moving Ahead", JW.org News, May 13, 2013.
73.^ a b Awake!, February 22, 1987, pages 25–27.
74.^ "Watchtower project grows in Patterson", New York Times, April 18, 1983, 1993. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
75.^ "Watchtower Society may move some NY offices", WCAX website, March 26, 2009. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
76.^ a b c "A Witness to the future as Watchtower buys land upstate", The Brooklyn Paper, April 2, 2009. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
77.^ "Watchtower's move to Warwick? 'Not anytime soon'", Brooklyn Daily Eagle, October 24, 2011.
78.^ "The Watchtower is getting tired of being shown the door in Brooklyn Heights", The New York Observer, October 25, 2011.
79.^ a b "Historic Turning Point: After Century in Brooklyn, Watchtower Pulls Out of Heights", Brooklyn Heights, February 23, 2010.
80.^ "The Witnesses Leave. Then What?", Brooklyn Daily Eagle, February 24, 2010.
81.^ "Town OKs impact plan for Jehovah's Witnesses", Times Herald-Record, July 17, 2012.
82.^ "Witnesses to Relocate World Headquarters", jw.org News, August 15, 2012.
83.^ "Warwick OKs Watchtower Site", Recordonline.com, Times Herald Record, July 19, 2013.
84.^ "Watchtower Buys Another Parcel", Times Herald-Record, August 25, 2011.
85.^ "Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of NY Pay 3.2M for Flex Building", Costar Group, Sept. 21, 2011.
86.^ "Annual Meeting Report", Aug. 15, 2012 Watchtower, page 17
87.^ "Suffern tenants must move after Jehovah's Witnesses group buys building", Lohud.com, June 12, 2013.
88.^ "Increased Activity at United States Bethel", Our Kingdom Ministry, September 2003.
89.^ a b c d e f "Watchtower to sell 6 Brooklyn Heights properties", Brooklyn Daily Eagle, April 26, 2007. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
90.^ a b c "Selloff! But Witnesses say they will remain kings of Kings", The Brooklyn Paper, May 12, 2007. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
91.^ Yearbook, 1991, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, page 10.
92.^ "Have a seat in the Standish", The Brooklyn Paper, December 15, 2007. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
93.^ a b Different Building, Same Buyer for Witnesses
94.^ Group with big Brooklyn plan snaps up property
95.^ Second Witnesses property fetches $4.1M
96.^ Praise God! Another Watchtower Property Sells
97.^ Watchtower Sells Yet Another Heights Property, Brownstoner Brooklyn Inside and Out, November 30, 2012.
98.^ New York Post, Brooklyn Blog, May 8, 2012, Brooklyn's Bossert Hotel could become a hotel again
99.^ The Real Deal News, Nov. 12, 2012, Chetrit, Bistricer pay $81 million for Brooklyn's Bossert Hotel
100.^ Jehovah's Witnesses Sell First Property for $7.1 million
101.^ Latest Witnesses-owned property in Brooklyn Heights hits the market, THE REAL DEAL, July 24, 2012.
102.^ "Watchtower Sells 67 Remsen Street for 3.25 million", Brooklyn Heights Blog, October 10, 2012.
103.^ "Witnesses put prime Dumbo site on the block", Crain's New York Business, June 4, 2012.
104.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses Sell Latest Dumbo Development Site for $31M", The Real Deal, April 25, 2013.
105.^ a b c Brooklyn-Bridge-Park "Developers Jostling for a piece of Brooklyn Bridge Park", The Real Deal, June 10, 2013.
106.^ Watchtower Society selling five more properties in Brooklyn, NY, THE REAL DEAL, Sept. 16, 2011.
107.^ "Big Deal: Jehovah's Witnesses List Prime Properties, The New York Times – City Room, September 16, 2011.
108.^ "Witnesses knocking on $375M bldg. sale", New York Post, July 7, 2013.
109.^ Hallelujah! "Jehovah's Witnesses land sell-off has Brooklyn dreaming big", Crain's New York Business, October 16, 2011.
110.^ "Bible Truth Triumphs Amid Tradition", The Watchtower, May 15, 1985, page 27.
111.^ “Your Will Be Done on Earth”, The Watchtower, 1960, page 30.
112.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, p. 33
113.^ "Building to Jehovah’s Glory", The Watchtower, May 1, 1979, pages 26–29.
114.^ 2012 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses p.32, 33, 55.
115.^ Jehovah's Witnesses–Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Society. 1993. p. 91.
116.^ "How the Governing Body Differs From a Legal Corporation", The Watchtower, January 15, 2001, page 28.
117.^ "Moving Ahead With God’s Organization", The Watchtower, September 1, 1983, page 13.
118.^ "The Governing Body", 1974 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, Watch Tower, page 258
119.^ "Background of N. H. Knorr", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993 Watch Tower, page 91
120.^ "He Ran for “The Prize of the Upward Call” and Won!", The Watchtower, September 15, 1974, page 554, "On October 31, 1932, he [Sullivan] was made a member of the board of directors of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania; he was also one of the eleven-member governing body of Jehovah’s witnesses."
121.^ "A Time of Testing (1914–1918)", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993 Watch Tower, page 71, "Thomas (Bud) Sullivan, who later served as a member of the Governing Body, recalled: “It was my privilege to visit Brooklyn Bethel in the late summer of 1918 during the brothers’ incarceration."
122.^ "Happy are the dead who die in union with the Lord", The Watchtower, May 15, 1965, page 320.
123.^ "Experiencing Jehovah’s Love", The Watchtower, September 15, 1964, page 571
124.^ "Announcements", The Watchtower, May 15, 1965, page 320, "Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society of Pennsylvania announces herewith the death of Brother Hugo H. Riemer on March 31, 1965. After years of service as a pioneer publisher in the field, he was called to the Society’s Brooklyn headquarters in 1918, since which time he served with the Society’s headquarters till his death at eighty-six years of age. He was on the boards of directors of both the Society’s Pennsylvania corporation and its New York corporation, also serving in the official capacity of assistant secretary-treasurer of both corporations."
125.^ a b c d e f "Organization of the Work", Watch Tower, December 1, 1916, page 391, Reprints page 6024 Retrieved 2010-03-30, "Two days after his [C. T. Russell's 1916] death the Board met and elected Brother A.N. Pierson as a member of the Board to fill the vacancy caused by Brother Russell's change. The seven members of the Board as now constituted are A.I. Ritchie, W.E. Van Amburgh, H.C. Rockwell, J.D. Wright, I.F. Hoskins, A.N. Pierson and J.F. Rutherford."
126.^ "A Time of Testing (1914–1918)", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993 Watch Tower, page 65, "So, two days after Russell’s death, the board of directors met and elected A. N. Pierson to be a member. The seven members of the board at that point were A. I. Ritchie, W. E. Van Amburgh, H. C. Rockwell, J. D. Wright, I. F. Hoskins, A. N. Pierson, and J. F. Rutherford."
127.^ "Moving Ahead With God’s Organization", The Watchtower, September 1, 1983, page 14, "The Society’s secretary and treasurer, W. E. Van Amburgh, had become incapacitated due to advanced age and illness and so resigned from his position. I was elected to succeed him on February 6, 1947, and Brother Van Amburgh died the following day."
128.^ "Testing and Sifting From Within", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993 Watch Tower, page 622, "In 1916, W. E. Van Amburgh declared: “This great worldwide work is not the work of one person. . . . It is God’s work.” Although he saw others turn away, he remained firm in that conviction right down till his death in 1947, at 83 years of age."
129.^ "How the Governing Body Differs From a Legal Corporation", The Watchtower, January 1, 2001, page 28, "In 1940, Hayden C. Covington—then the Society’s legal counsel and one of the “other sheep,” with the earthly hope—was elected a director of the Society. (John 10:16) He served as the Society’s vice president from 1942 to 1945. At that time, Brother Covington stepped aside as a director"
130.^ Rutherford chaired executive meetings in 1916 but was not formally elected president until 1917. During Rutherford's 1918–1919 incarceration, vice-presidents Anderson and Wise chaired executive meetings.
131.^ a b c d e "A Time of Testing (1914–1918)", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993 Watch Tower, page 68, "At the annual meeting held on January 5, 1918, the seven persons receiving the highest number of votes were J. F. Rutherford, C. H. Anderson, W. E. Van Amburgh, A. H. Macmillan, W. E. Spill, J. A. Bohnet, and G. H. Fisher. From these seven board members, the three officers were chosen—J. F. Rutherford as president, C. H. Anderson as vice president, and W. E. Van Amburgh as secretary-treasurer."
132.^ Faith on the March by A. H. Macmillan, 1957, Prentice-Hall, pages 106, 110, "At New Year's time the Society held its [1919] annual election of officers in Pittsburgh. ...He [Rutherford] handed me a telegram saying that he had been elected president and C. A. Wise vice-president. ...C. A. Wise was there too. He had been elected vice-president while we were in prison."
133.^ "Part 2—United States of America", 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, Watch Tower, pages 113–114, "Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, January 2–5, 1919. This assembly was combined with the very significant annual meeting of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society on Saturday, January 4, 1919. ...There were nominations, a vote was taken and J. F. Rutherford was elected as president, C. A. Wise, as vice-president, and W. E. Van Amburgh, as secretary-treasurer."
134.^ "Sweden", 1991 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, Watch Tower, page 135
135.^ The Watchtower, October 15, 1939, pages 316–317
136.^ Watch Tower, December 15, 1923, page 333
137.^ The Watchtower, October 15, 1939, pages 316–317, "The Society’s annual meeting in 1919 Jan. 4 in Pittsburgh reelected J.F. Rutherford President and W.E. VanAmburgh Secretary-Treasurer. But the others elected to the Board of Directors, viz. C.A. Wise (Vice President), R.H. Barber [...] were freer to carry out their responsibilities. When the imprisoned leaders were released, Barber resigned"
138.^ "Ritchie, A. I.", Watchtower Publications Index 1930–1985, "RITCHIE, A. I. vice president of Watch Tower Society (1916)"
139.^ a b c d e f Watch Tower, January 1885, Vol VI, No. 5, page 1, [Reprints page 707], "A charter of incorporation for Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was granted December 13, 1884. ...The incorporators are the Directors, named below... Directors C. T. Russell, Pres., M. F. Russell, Sec and Treas., W. C. McMillan, W. I. Mann, Vice Pres., J. B. Adamson, J. F. Smith."
140.^ "Passed Beyond the Vail", Watch Tower, April 15, 1906, page 126, Reprints page 3765, "ANOTHER member of the Board...Brother William M. Wright, passed beyond the vail, into the Most Holy, we trust, on April 3."
141.^ a b c "Harvest Gleanings III", Watch Tower, April 25, 1894, page 131, "The Corporation is to be managed by a Board of Directors consisting of seven members, and the names and residences of those already chosen directors are (we given names of the present board and officers) as follows: -Charles T Russell, President, W C McMillan, Henry Weber, Vice President, J B Adamson, Maria F Russell, Sec’y & Treas, Simon O Blunden. Rose J Ball."
142.^ "Entered Into His Rest", Watch Tower, February 1, 1904, page 36, Reprints page 3314, Retrieved 2010-03-30, "PILGRIM Brother Henry Weber has passed beyond the vail, to be forever with the Lord. We rejoice on his behalf. He finished his earthly course on Thursday, January 21, at 2.15 pm, at his home --Oakland, Md.--and was buried on Saturday, the 23rd. A large gathering, composed of his family, friends and neighbors, was addressed by the Editor of this journal...we will sadly miss our dear Brother, as a friend and as a Pilgrim and as Vice-President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society"
143.^ "Part 1—United States of America", 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, Watch Tower, pages 65–66, "During the trouble in 1894, Mrs. C. T. Russell (the former Maria Frances Ackley, whom Russell had married in 1879) undertook a tour from New York to Chicago, meeting with Bible Students along the way and speaking in her husband’s behalf. Being an educated, intelligent woman, she was well received when visiting the congregations at that time. Mrs. Russell was a director of the Watch Tower Society and served as its secretary and treasurer for some years."
144.^ The January 15, 1955 The Watchtower, page 46, referred to the former "Maria Frances Ackley, who had become a colaborer and a contributor of articles to the Watch Tower magazine. They came to have no children. Nearly eighteen years later, in 1897, due to Watch Tower Society members’ objecting to a woman’s teaching and being a member of the board of directors contrary to 1 Timothy 2:12, Russell and his wife disagreed about the management of the journal, Zion’s Watch Tower. Thereupon she voluntarily separated herself"
145.^ Franz 2007, pp. 614–654
146.^ Franz 2007, pp. 69–124
147.^ The Watchtower, February 15, 1976, page 124, as cited by R. Franz, "In Search if Christian Freedom", page 107,"Would not a failure to respond to direction from God through his organization really indicate a rejection of divine rulership?"
148.^ "Do not be quickly shaken from your reason", Watchtower, March 15, 1986
149.^ "At which table are you feeding?" Watchtower, July 1, 1994
150.^ Franz 2007, pp. 391–431
151.^ Gruss 2003, pp. 110–114
152.^ Holden 2002, p. 32
Bibliography[edit]
Penton, James M. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die. Constable, London. ISBN 094559406 Check |isbn= value (help).
Wills, Tony (2006). A People For His Name. Lulu Enterprises. ISBN 978-1-4303-0100-4.
Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society (1975). 1975 Yearbook. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society.
Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society (1959). Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society.
Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society (1993). Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society.
Macmillan, A.H. (1957). Faith on the March. Prentice-Hall.
Rutherford, J.F. (August 1, 1917). Harvest Siftings. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. Retrieved July 19, 2009.
Rutherford, J.F. (October 1, 1917). Harvest Siftings, Part II. Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. Retrieved July 19, 2009.
Pierson et al, A.N. (September 1, 1917). Light After Darkness. Retrieved July 21, 2009.
Johnson, Paul S.L. (November 1, 1917). Harvest Siftings Reviewed. Retrieved July 21, 2009.
Grizzuti Harrison, Barbara (1978). Visions of Glory – A History and a Memory of Jehovah's Witnesses. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-7091-8013-5.
Gruss, Edmond C., editor (2003). The Four Presidents of the Watch Tower Society. Xulon Press. ISBN 1-59467-131-1.
Holden, Andrew (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26609-2.
Franz, Raymond (2007). Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. ISBN 0-914675-23-0.
Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7.
 

Categories: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses
Religious organizations established in 1881



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Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses

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Part of a series on
Jehovah's Witnesses

Overview

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W. H. Conley·
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J. F. Rutherford·
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F. W. Franz·
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D. A. Adams
 
Formative influences

William Miller·
 Henry Grew
 
George Storrs·
 N. H. Barbour

 
Notable former members

Raymond Franz·
 Olin Moyle

 
Opposition

Criticism·
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Supreme Court cases
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Concepts[show]


 

Status by country[show]

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Religious persecution[show]

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See also: Jehovah's Witnesses and governments and Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses by country
Throughout Jehovah's Witnesses' history, their beliefs, doctrines and practices have engendered controversy and opposition from local governments, communities, and religious groups.
Many Christian denominations consider the interpretations and doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses to be heretical. Some religious leaders have accused Jehovah's Witnesses of being a cult. According to law professor Archibald Cox, in the United States, Jehovah's Witnesses were "the principal victims of religious persecution … they began to attract attention and provoke repression in the 1930s, when their proselytizing and numbers rapidly increased."[1]
Political and religious animosity against Jehovah's Witnesses has at times led to mob action and government oppression in various countries, including Cuba, the United States, Canada, Singapore and Nazi Germany. The religion's doctrine of political neutrality has led to imprisonment of members who refused conscription (for example in Britain during World War II and afterwards during the period of compulsory national service).
During the World Wars, Jehovah's Witnesses were targeted in the United States, Canada and many other countries for their refusal to serve in the military or help with war efforts. In Canada, Jehovah's Witnesses were interned in camps[2] along with political dissidents and people of Japanese and Chinese descent. Activities of Jehovah's Witnesses have previously been banned in the Soviet Union and in Spain, partly due to their refusal to perform military service. Their religious activities are currently banned or restricted in some countries, for example in Singapore, China, Vietnam, and many Islamic states.
According to the journal, Social Compass, "Viewed globally, this persecution has been so persistent and of such an intensity that it would not be inaccurate to regard Jehovah's witnesses as the most persecuted religion of the twentieth century".[3] The claim is disputed, as deaths resulting from persecution of Christians of other denominations during the twentieth century are estimated to number 26 million.[4]

Contents
  [hide] 1 Countries 1.1 Benin
1.2 Bulgaria
1.3 Cuba
1.4 Canada
1.5 France 1.5.1 French dependencies
1.6 Georgia
1.7 Germany
1.8 India
1.9 Malawi
1.10 Singapore
1.11 Soviet Union
1.12 Russian Federation
1.13 United States
2 References
3 Additional reading

Countries[edit]
Benin[edit]
During the first presidency of Mathieu Kérékou, activities of Jehovah's Witnesses were banned and members were forced to undergo "demystification training."[5][clarification needed]
Bulgaria[edit]
In Bulgaria, Jehovah's Witnesses have been targets of violence by right wing nationalist groups such as the Bulgarian National Movement. On April 17, 2011, a group of about sixty hooded men carrying BMPO flags besieged a Kingdom Hall in Burgas, during the annual memorial of Christ's death. Attackers threw stones, damaged furniture, and injured at least five of the people gathered inside.[6][7] The incident was recorded by a local television station.[8] Jehovah's Witnesses in Bulgaria have been fined for proselytizing without proper government permits, and some municipalities have legislation prohibiting or restricting their rights to preach.[9]
Cuba[edit]
Main article: Military Units to Aid Production
See also: Human rights in Cuba
Under Fidel Castro's communist regime, Jehovah's Witnesses were considered "social deviants", along with homosexuals, vagrants and other groups, and were sent to forced labor concentration camps to be "reeducated".[10] Jehovah's Witnesses could not refuse blood transfusions on religious grounds, as the Cuban Healthcare system gave no right to refuse treatment (even on religious or animal rights grounds).[citation needed]
Canada[edit]
Main article: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Canada
During both world wars, Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted for abhorrence of patriotic exercises and conscientious objection to military service.[11]
In 1984, Canada released a number of previously classified documents which revealed that in the 1940s, "able bodied young Jehovah's Witnesses" were sent to "camps", and "entire families who practiced the religion were imprisoned."[2] The 1984 report stated, "Recently declassified wartime documents suggest [World War II] was also a time of officially sanctioned religious bigotry, political intolerance and the suppression of ideas. The federal government described Jehovah's Witnesses as subversive and offensive 'religious zealots' … in secret reports given to special parliamentarian committees in 1942." It concluded that, "probably no other organization is so offensive in its methods, working as it does under the guise of Christianity. The documents prepared by the justice department were presented to a special house of commons committee by the government of William Lyon MacKenzie King in an attempt to justify the outlawing of the organizations during the second world war."[12]
France[edit]
See also: Jehovah's Witnesses and governments (France)
Prior to World War II, the French government banned the Association of Jehovah's Witnesses in France, and ordered that the French offices of the Watch Tower Society be vacated.[13] After the war, Jehovah's Witnesses in France renewed their operations. In December 1952, France's Minister of the Interior banned The Watchtower magazine, citing its position on military service.[14] The ban was lifted on November 26, 1974.[15][16]
In the 1990s and 2000s, the French government included Jehovah's Witnesses on its list of "cults", and governmental ministers made derogatory public statements about Jehovah's Witnesses.[17] Despite its century of activity in the country, France's Ministry of Finance opposed official recognition of the religion; it was not until June 23, 2000 that France's highest administrative court, the Council of State, ruled that Jehovah's Witnesses qualify as a religion under French law.[18] France's Ministry of the Interior sought to collect 60% of donations made to the religion's entities; Witnesses called the taxation "confiscatory" and appealed to the European Court of Human Rights.[19][20] On June 30, 2011, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that France’s actions violated the religious freedom of Jehovah’s Witnesses by demanding 58 million euros in taxes.[21]
Jehovah's Witnesses in France have reported hundreds of criminal attacks against their adherents and places of worship.[22]
French dependencies[edit]
During the ban of the The Watchtower in France, publication of the magazine continued in various French territories. In French Polynesia, the magazine was covertly published under the name, La Sentinelle, though it was later learned that The Watchtower had not been banned locally.[23] In Réunion, the magazine was published under the name, Bulletin intérieur.[24]
Georgia[edit]
In 1996, one year after Georgia adopted its post-USSR Constitution,[25] the country's Ministry of Internal Affairs began a campaign to detain tons of religious literature belonging to Jehovah's Witnesses.[26][27] Government officials refused permits for Jehovah's Witnesses to organize assemblies, and law enforcement officials dispersed legal assemblies. In September 2000, "Georgian police and security officials fired blank anti-tank shells and used force to disperse an outdoor gathering of some 700 Jehovah's Witnesses in the town of Natuliki in northwestern Georgia on 8 September, AP and Caucasus Press reported." [28]
In cases when the instigators were formally charged, prosecution was impeded by a lack of cooperation by government and law enforcement.[29] In 2004, Forum 18 News Service referred to the period since 1999 as a "five-year reign of terror" against Jehovah's Witnesses and certain other religious minorities.[30] Amnesty International noted: "Jehovah's Witnesses have frequently been a target for violence … in Georgia … In many of the incidents police are said to have failed to protect the believers, or even to have participated in physical and verbal abuse." [31] Individual Witnesses have fled Georgia seeking religious refugee status in other nations.[32]
On May 3, 2007, the European Court of Human Rights ruled against the government of Georgia for its toleration of religious violence toward Jehovah's Witnesses and ordered the victims be compensated for moral damages and legal costs.[33][34][35]
Germany[edit]
Main article: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany
During 1931 and 1932, more than 2000 legal actions were instigated against Jehovah's Witnesses in Germany and members of the religion were dismissed from employment.[36] Persecution intensified following Adolf Hitler's appointment as chancellor in 1933 and continued until 1945.[37] A "Declaration of Facts" was issued at a Jehovah's Witness convention in Berlin on June 25, 1933, asserting the religion's political neutrality and calling for an end to government opposition. More than 2.1 million copies of the statement were distributed throughout Germany,[38] but its distribution prompted a new wave of persecution against German Witnesses, whose refusal to give the Hitler salute, join Nazi organizations or perform military service demonstrated their opposition to the nationalist and totalitarian ideologies of National Socialism.[39]
On October 4, 1934, congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses in Germany sent telegrams of protest and warning to Hitler. According to one eyewitness account Hitler was shown a number of telegrams protesting against the Third Reich's persecution of the Bible Students. The eyewitness, Karl Wittig, reported: "Hitler jumped to his feet and with clenched fists hysterically screamed: 'This brood will be exterminated in Germany!' Four years after this discussion I was able, by my own observations, to convince myself … that Hitler's outburst of anger was not just an idle threat. No other group of prisoners of the named concentration-camps was exposed to the sadism of the SS-soldiery in such a fashion as the Bible Students were. It was a sadism marked by an unending chain of physical and mental tortures, the likes of which no language in the world can express."[40][41]
About 10,000 Witnesses were imprisoned, including 2000 sent to concentration camps, where they were identified by purple triangles; as many as 1200 died, including 250 who were executed.[42][43] Officials told Witnesses that they would be freed if they would renounce their faith, submit to the state authority and support the German military, though few agreed.[citation needed]
Despite more than a century of conspicuous activity in the country, Jehovah's Witnesses in Germany were not granted legal recognition until March 25, 2005, in Berlin;[44] in 2006 Germany's Federal Administrative Court (BVerwG) in Leipzig extended the local decision to apply nationwide.[45]
India[edit]
Jehovah’s Witnesses' Office of Public Information has documented a number of mob attacks with impunity in India.[46] It reports that these continuing instances of violence "reveal the country's hostility toward its own citizens who are Christians." Reports also indicate that police assist mob attacks on Jehovah's Witnesses.
For example, in one incident on December 6, 2011, three Witnesses were attacked by a mob in Madikeri, in the state of Karnataka. The male Witness "was kicked and pummeled by the mob" and then the mob dragged them towards a nearby temple; while making lewd remarks, the mob "tried to tear the clothes off of the female Witnesses." According to the report, the police came and "took the three Witnesses to the police station and filed charges against them rather than the mob."[47]
Malawi[edit]
In 1967, thousands of Witnesses in Malawi were beaten by police and citizens for refusing to purchase political party cards to become members of the Malawi Congress Party.[48]
Singapore[edit]
In 1972 the Singapore government de-registered and banned the activities of Jehovah's Witnesses on the grounds that its members refuse to perform military service (which is obligatory for all male citizens), salute the flag, or swear oaths of allegiance to the state.[49][50] Singapore has banned all written materials (including Bibles) published by the International Bible Students Association and the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, both publishing arms of the Jehovah's Witnesses. A person in possession of banned literature can be fined up to S$2,000 (US$1,460) and jailed up to 12 months for a first conviction.[51]
In February 1995, Singapore police raided private homes where group members were holding religious meetings, in an operation codenamed "Operation Hope". Officers seized Bibles, religious literature, documents and computers, and eventually brought charges against 69 Jehovah's Witnesses, many of whom went to jail.[52][53] In March 1995, 74-year-old Yu Nguk Ding was arrested for carrying two "undesirable publications"—one of them a Bible printed by the Watch Tower Society.[54]
In 1996, eighteen Jehovah's Witnesses were convicted for unlawfully meeting in a Singapore apartment and were given sentences from one to four weeks in jail.[55] Canadian Queens Counsel Glen How flew to Singapore to defend the Jehovah's Witnesses and argued that the restrictions against the Jehovah's Witnesses violated their constitutional rights. Then-Chief Justice Yong Pung How questioned How's sanity, accused him of "living in a cartoon world" and referred to "funny, cranky religious groups" before denying the appeal.[52] In 1998, two Jehovah's Witnesses were charged in a Singapore court for possessing and distributing banned religious publications.[56]
In 1998 a Jehovah's Witness lost a law suit against a government school for wrongful dismissal for refusing to sing the national anthem or salute the flag. In March 1999, the Court of Appeals denied his appeal.[49] In 2000, public secondary schools indefinitely suspended at least fifteen Jehovah's Witness students for refusing to sing the national anthem or participate in the flag ceremony.[57] In April 2001, one public school teacher, also a member of Jehovah's Witnesses, resigned after being threatened with dismissal for refusing to participate in singing the national anthem.[49]
Singapore authorities have seized Jehovah's Witnesses' literature on various occasions from individuals attempting to cross the Malaysia-Singapore border. In thirteen cases, authorities warned the Jehovah's Witnesses, but did not press charges.[57][58][59]
As of 2008, there were 23 members of Jehovah's Witnesses incarcerated in the armed forces detention barracks for refusal to carry out mandatory military service. The initial sentence for failure to comply is 15 months' imprisonment, with an additional 24 months for a second refusal. All of the Jehovah's Witnesses in detention were incarcerated for failing to perform their initial military obligations and expect to serve a total of 39 months.[59] Failure to perform annual military reserve duty, which is required of all those who have completed their initial 2-year obligation, results in a 40-day sentence, with a 12-month sentence after four refusals.[59][60] There is no alternative civilian service for Jehovah's witnesses.
In 2008–2009, the Singapore government declined to make data available to the public concerning arrests of Jehovah's Witnesses.[61][62]
Soviet Union[edit]
Jehovah's Witnesses did not have a significant presence in the Soviet Union prior to 1939 when the Soviet Union forcibly incorporated eastern Poland, Moldavia, and Lithuania, each of which had a Jehovah's Witness movement. Although never large in number (estimated by the KGB to be 20,000 in 1968), the Jehovah's Witnesses became one of the most persecuted religious groups in the Soviet Union during the post-World War II era.[63] Members were arrested or deported; some were put in Soviet concentration camps. Witnesses in Moldavian SSR were deported to Tomsk Oblast; members from other regions of the Soviet Union were deported to Irkutsk Oblast.[64] KGB officials, who were tasked with dissolving the Jehovah's Witness movement, were disturbed to discover that the Witnesses continued to practice their faith even within the labor camps.[65]
The Minister of Internal Affairs, Viktor Semyonovich Abakumov proposed the deportation of the Jehovah's Witnesses to Stalin in October 1950. A resolution was voted by the Council of Minister and an order was issued by the Ministry for State Security in March 1951. The Moldavian SSR passed a decree "on the confiscation and selling of the property of individuals banished from the territory of the Moldavian SSR", which included the Jehovah's Witnesses.[64]
In April 1951, over 9,000 Jehovah's Witnesses were deported to Siberia under a plan called "Operation North".[66][67]
Importation of Jehovah's Witnesses' literature into the Soviet Union was strictly forbidden, and Soviet Jehovah's Witnesses received their religious literature from Brooklyn illegally. Literature from Brooklyn arrived regularly, through well-organized unofficial channels, not only in many cities, but also in Siberia, and even in the penal camps of Potma.[citation needed] The Soviet government was so disturbed by the Jehovah's Witnesses that the KGB was authorized to send agents to infiltrate the Brooklyn headquarters.[68]
In September 1965, a decree of the Presidium of the USSR Council of Ministers canceled the "special settlement" restriction of Jehovah's Witnesses, though the decree, signed by Anastas Mikoyan, stated that there would be no compensation for confiscated property. However, Jehovah's Witnesses remained the subject of state persecution due to their ideology being classified as anti-Soviet.[69]
Russian Federation[edit]
On December 8, 2009 the Supreme Court of Russia upheld the ruling of the lower courts which pronounced 34 pieces of Jehovah's Witness literature extremist, including their magazine The Watchtower, in the Russian language, and the book for children, My Book of Bible Stories. Jehovah's Witnesses claim that this ruling affirms a misapplication of the Federal Law on Counteracting Extremist Activity to Jehovah's Witnesses. The ruling upheld the confiscation of property of Jehovah's Witnesses in Taganrog (Rostov Region) in Russia, and might set a precedent for similar cases in other areas of Russia, as well as placing literature of Jehovah's Witnesses on a list of literature unacceptable throughout Russia. The Chairman of the Presiding Committee of the Administrative Center of Jehovah's Witnesses in Russia, Vasily Kalin, said: "I am very concerned that this decision will open a new era of opposition against Jehovah's Witnesses, whose right to meet in peace, to access religious literature and to share the Christian hope contained in the Gospels, is more and more limited." Kalin also stated, "When I was young I was sent to Siberia for being one of Jehovah's Witnesses and because my parents were reading The Watchtower, the same journal being unjustly declared 'extremist' in these proceedings."[70]
United States[edit]
Main article: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in the United States
During the 1930s and 1940s, some US states passed laws that made it illegal for Jehovah's Witnesses to distribute their literature, and children of Jehovah's Witnesses in some states were banned from attending state schools. Mob violence against Jehovah's Witnesses was not uncommon, and some were murdered for their beliefs. Those responsible for these attacks were seldom prosecuted.[need quotation to verify][71]
After a drawn-out litigation process in state courts and lower federal courts, lawyers for Jehovah's Witnesses convinced the Supreme Court to issue a series of landmark First Amendment rulings that confirmed their right to be excused from military service and the recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance.[citation needed][when?]
The persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses for their refusal to salute the flag became known as the "Flag-Salute Cases".[72] Their refusal to salute the flag became considered as a test of the liberties for which the flag stands, namely the freedom to worship according to the dictates of one's own conscience. It was found that the United States, by making the flag salute compulsory in Minersville School District v. Gobitis (1940), was impinging upon the individual's right to worship as one chooses — a violation of the First Amendment Free Exercise Clause in the constitution. Justice Frankfurter, speaking in behalf of the 8-to-1 majority view against the Witnesses, stated that the interests of "inculcating patriotism was of sufficient importance to justify a relatively minor infringement on religious belief."[73] The result of the ruling was a wave of persecution. Lillian Gobitas, the mother of the schoolchildren involved in the decision said, "It was like open season on Jehovah's Witnesses."[74]
The American Civil Liberties Union reported that by the end of 1940, "more than 1,500 Witnesses in the United States had been victimized in 335 separate attacks."[75] Such attacks included beatings, being tarred and feathered, hanged, shot, maimed, and even castrated, as well as other acts of violence.[76] As reports of these attacks against Jehovah's Witnesses continued, "several justices changed their minds, and in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette (1943), the Court declared that the state could not impinge on the First Amendment by compelling the observance of rituals."[77]
References[edit]

 Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (April 2010) 
1.^ Cox, Archibald (1987). The Court and the Constitution. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co. p. 189. ISBN 0-395-48071-X.
2.^ a b Yaffee, Barbara (9 September 1984). Witnesses Seek Apology for Wartime Persecution. The Globe in Mail. p. 4.
3.^ Jubber, Ken (1977). "The Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Southern Africa". Social Compass, 24 (1): 121,. doi:10.1177/003776867702400108.
4.^ "More martyrs now than then".
5.^ Lamb, David. The Africans. Page 109.
6.^ http://www.jw-media.org/bgr/20110421.htm
7.^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sy9lQjwwbEM
8.^ "Brawl between Bulgarian Nationalists, Jehovah Witnesses Injures 5". The Journal of Turkish Weekly.
9.^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2010/148922.htm
10.^ Philip Brenner, Marguerite Rose Jiménez, John M. Kirk, William M LeoGrande. A contemporary Cuba reader.
11.^ Marsh, James H. (1988). The Canadian Encyclopedia (2 ed.). Hurtig. p. 1107. ISBN 0-88830-328-9.
12.^ Secret Files Reveal Bigotry, Suppression. The Globe and Mail. 4 September 1984.
13.^ "France", 1980 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 87-89, "THE ORGANIZATION IS BANNED In mid-October 1939, about six weeks after the beginning of the war, the organization of Jehovah's Witnesses was banned in France."
14.^ "France", 1980 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 128
15.^ 1976 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses
16.^ "Announcements", Our Kingdom Ministry, February 1975, page 3
17.^ "France: International Religious Freedom Report 2006", U.S. Department of State, As Retrieved 2009-08-19, [The French] Government has a stated policy of monitoring potentially "dangerous" cult activity through the Inter-ministerial Monitoring Mission against Sectarian Abuses (MIVILUDES). … In January 2005, MIVILUDES published a guide for public servants instructing them how to spot and combat "dangerous" sects. … The Jehovah's Witnesses were mentioned"
18.^ "Highest administrative court in France rules that Jehovah's Witnesses are a religion", News release June 23, 2000, Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses, As Retrieved 2009-08-19
19.^ "France: International Religious Freedom Report 2008", U.S. Department of State, As Retrieved 2009-08-19, "Jehovah's Witnesses awaited a ruling by the ECHR on the admissibility of a case contesting the government's assessment of their donations at a 60 percent tax rate. The government had imposed the high rate relative to other religious groups after ruling the group to be a harmful cult. If the assessed tax, which totaled more than 57 million euros (approximately $77.5 million) as of year's end, were to be paid, it would consume all of the group's buildings and assets in the country."
20.^ "French High Court confirms 60-percent confiscatory tax measure on religious donations", News release October 6, 2004, Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses, As Retrieved 2009-08-19, "France's highest court of appeal, the Cour de cassation, has handed down its decision in a case between the Association Les Témoins de Jéhovah, a not-for-profit religious association used by Jehovah's Witnesses in France, and the national tax department, the Direction des services fiscaux. Following a tax inspection lasting 18 months, the tax department established that Association Les Témoins de Jéhovah, whose sole revenue consists of religious donations by its adherents, was run in a completely benevolent fashion, and that its activities were not commercial or for profit. Nevertheless, the tax department levied a 60-percent tax on the religious donations made over a period of four years, between 1993 and 1996. … This is the first time in their 100-year existence in France that Jehovah's Witnesses have been taxed in this manner. … Furthermore, this tax has not been imposed on any other religious organization in France. The Association Les Témoins de Jéhovah has decided to institute proceedings against this confiscatory taxation before the European Court of Human Rights."
21.^ http://www.vision.org/visionmedia/article.aspx?id=45917
22.^ "France: International Religious Freedom Report 2008", U.S. Department of State, As Retrieved 2009-08-19, "According to representatives for the Jehovah's Witnesses community, there were 65 acts of vandalism against the group in the country through December including Molotov cocktails aimed at Jehovah's Witnesses' property. … According to the leaders of the Jehovah's Witnesses community in the country, there were 98 acts against individuals for 2006 and 115 acts in 2007."
23.^ 2005 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. pp. 88–89.
24.^ 2007 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 255
25.^ That is, 'the year after 1995'. See Parliament of Georgia website, As Retrieved 2009-08-26, "THE CONSTITUTION OF GEORGIA Adopted on 24 August 1995"
26.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses in Georgia: Chronology of Acts of Violence and Intimidation", Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses, As Retrieved 2009-08-26
27.^ "Georgia Country Reports on Human Rights Practices", U. S. State Department, February 23, 2000, As Retrieved 2009-08-26
28.^ Encyclopedia.com, As Retrieved 2009-08-26
29.^ "GEORGIA: INTIMIDATION SABOTAGES TRIAL OF VIOLENT PRIEST" by Felix Corley, Keston News Service, February 7, 2002, Keston Institute, Oxford, UK, as cited by Eurasianet.org, As Retrieved 2009-08-26, "[A lawyer for Jehovah's Witnesses] does not believe judge Chkheidze did enough. "He should have done more to protect the security of participants. Five policemen were present but left the courtroom before the hearing started. We don't know why. Maybe they were instructed to do so." In a statement issued after the trial, the Jehovah's Witnesses reported that about three hundred of Mkalavishvili's supporters, mostly men, armed with metal and wooden crosses, tried to invade the courtroom before the hearing began. "Many entered and occupied areas reserved for attorneys as they rang their religious bell and waved large anti-Jehovah's Witness banners. As the victims' attorneys made their way through the mob to Judge Ioseb Chkheidze's chambers, they overheard security police being ordered away from the scene. The courtroom was left with no security." Attorneys explained to Chkheidze that under these circumstances it was impossible to proceed with the trial as it was too dangerous for the victims or their attorneys to attend."
30.^ "GEORGIA: Will violent attackers of religious minorities be punished?" by Felix Corley, F18News, Forum 18 News Service, published 16 August 2004, As Retrieved 2009-08-26
31.^ AmnestyUSA.org, As Retrieved 2009-08-26
32.^ T. L. v. Ministry of Internal Affairs, V SA 1969/95, Poland: High Administrative Court, 17 September 1996, As Retrieved 2009-08-26, "On 12 May 1995 during the "status interview" conducted by the officer of the Ministry of Internal Affairs' Office the applicant declared additionally that, among others, she could not return to the country, because since 1989 she had been the Jehovah Witness sic and she feared that she could be arrested for that reason."
33.^ "CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF JUDGMENTS AND PUBLISHED DECISIONS", EUROPEAN COURT OF HUMAN RIGHTS,As Retrieved 2009-08-26, page 203 of 285, May 3, 2007, Listing "7148 3.5.2007 Membres de la Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de Gldani et autres c. Géorgie/Members of the Gldani Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses and Others v. Georgia, no/no. 71156/01 (Sect. 2), CEDH/ECHR 2007-V"
34.^ As Retrieved 2009-08-26, pages 13–14 (of 53)
35.^ "European Court rules against Georgia's campaign of terror", Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses, As Retrieved 2009-08-26
36.^ "Firm in Faith Despite Opposition", The Watchtower, June 15, 1967, pages 366–367
37.^ "Germany", 1974 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, pages 116–117
38.^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. pp. 147–149. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3, 9780802079732 Check |isbn= value (help).
39.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 512–524. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
40.^ "Foreign Activities Under Fascist-Nazi Persecution", The Watchtower, August 1, 1955, page 462
41.^ "Germany", 1974 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 138
42.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 484. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
43.^ [1].
44.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses Granted Legal Status", Deutsche Welle, March 25, 2005, http://www.dw-world.de/popups/popup_printcontent/0,,1530197,00.html As Retrieved 2009-08-26, As Retrieved 2009-08-26, "A Berlin court ruled on Thursday that Jehovah's Witnesses are entitled to the same privileges enjoyed by Germany's major Catholic and Protestant churches, ending a 15-year legal fight about the group's status."
45.^ "Germany Federal Administrative Court Upholds Witnesses' Full Exercise of Faith", Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses, As Retrieved 2009-08-26
46.^ http://www.jw-media.org/ind/index.htm
47.^ "Violence against Jehovah’s Witnesses in India escalates as police assist mob attacks", Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses, [2]
48.^ Jubber, Ken (1977). "The Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Southern Africa". Social Compass 24 (1): 121–134. doi:10.1177/003776867702400108.
49.^ a b c http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5732.htm
50.^ "Singapore", International Religious Freedom Report 2004, U. S. Department of State, As Retrieved 2010-03-11
51.^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127287.htm
52.^ a b http://www.singapore-window.org/80411sm.htm
53.^ http://www.jehovah.com.au/jehovah-articles/1995/2/27/singapore-police-swoop-on-jehovahs-witnesses/
54.^ http://www.chrislydgate.com/webclips/jehovah.htm
55.^ http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/1996/january8/6t164b.html
56.^ http://www.singapore-window.org/80330up.htm
57.^ a b http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2002/13909.htm
58.^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27788.htm
59.^ a b c http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90153.htm
60.^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108423.htm
61.^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/eap/119056.htm
62.^ http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/eap/136008.htm
63.^ Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield, New York: Basic Books, 1999, ISBN 0-465-00310-9, p.503.
64.^ a b Pavel Polian. "Against Their Will: The History and Geography of Forced Migrations in the USSR", Central European University Press, 2004. ISBN 978-963-9241-68-8. p.169-171
65.^ Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield, New York: Basic Books, 1999, ISBN 0-465-00310-9, p.505.
66.^ "Recalling Operation North", by Vitali Kamyshev, "Русская мысль", Париж, N 4363, 26 April 2001 (Russian)
67.^ Валерий Пасат ."Трудные страницы истории Молдовы (1940–1950)". Москва: Изд. Terra, 1994 (Russian)
68.^ Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield, New York: Basic Books, 1999, ISBN 0-465-00310-9, p.506.
69.^ "Christan Believers Were Persecuted by All Tolatitarian Regimes" Prava Lyudini ("Rights of a Person"), the newspaper of a Ukrainian human rights organization, Kharkiv, December 2001 (Russian)
70.^ "Russian Supreme Court rules against Jehovah's Witnesses and religious freedom" December 8, 2009
71.^ cf. Peters, Shawn Francis. Judging Jehovah's Witnesses: Religious Persecution and the Dawn of the Rights Revolution p.11. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2000.
72.^ Hall, Kermit L. The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States p394. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
73.^ ibid p.395
74.^ Irons, Peter. A People's History of the Supreme Courtp. 341. New York: Viking Penguin, 1999.
75.^ Peters, Shawn Francis. Judging Jehovah's Witnesses: Religious Persecution and the Dawn of the Rights Revolution p10. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2000.
76.^ Peters, ibid p. 8.
77.^ Hall. ibid. p.395.
Additional reading[edit]
Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime Edited by Hans Hesse ISBN 3-86108-750-2
Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity, ISBN 0-689-10728-5

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Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany

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George Storrs·
 N. H. Barbour

 
Notable former members

Raymond Franz·
 Olin Moyle

 
Opposition

Criticism·
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Supreme Court cases
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Jehovah's Witnesses suffered religious persecution in Nazi Germany between 1933 and 1945 after refusing to perform military service, join Nazi organizations or give allegiance to the Hitler regime. An estimated 10,000 Witnesses—half of the number of members in Germany during that period—were imprisoned, including 2000 who were sent to concentration camps. An estimated 1200 died in custody, including 250 who were executed. They were the first Christian denomination banned in the Third Reich and the most extensively and intensively persecuted.[1] Unlike Jews and Gypsies who were persecuted on the basis of their ethnicity, Jehovah's Witnesses could escape persecution and personal harm by renouncing their religious beliefs by signing a document indicating renouncement of their faith, submission to state authority, and support of the German military.[2] Historian Sybil Milton concludes that "their courage and defiance in the face of torture and death punctures the myth of a monolithic Nazi state ruling over docile and submissive subjects."[3]
The group came under increasing public and governmental persecution from 1933, with many expelled from jobs and schools, deprived of income and suffering beatings and imprisonment, despite early attempts to demonstrate shared goals with the National Socialist regime. Historians are divided over whether the Nazis intended to exterminate them, but several authors have claimed the Witnesses' militancy and outspoken condemnation of the Nazis contributed to their level of suffering.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Pre-Nazi era
2 Legislative developments
3 Punishment
4 Concentration camps
5 Causes of persecution and Nazi motives
6 See also
7 References
8 Further reading
9 External links

Pre-Nazi era[edit source]
Jehovah's Witnesses were an outgrowth of the International Bible Students, who began missionary work in Europe in the 1890s. A German branch office of the Watch Tower Society opened in Elberfeld in 1902. By 1933 almost 20,000 Witnesses were counted as active door-to-door preachers and their annual Memorial service was attracting almost 25,000 people.[4] In Dresden there were more Bible Students than in New York, where the Watch Tower Society was headquartered.[5]
Members of the religion, who were known as Ernste Bibelforscher, or Earnest Bible Students, had attracted opposition since the end of World War I, with accusations that they were Bolsheviks, communists and covertly Jewish.[6] From 1920 the German Evangelical Church called for a ban on Watch Tower Society publications, which were engaging in increasing amounts of antichurch polemic and through the remainder of the 1920s opposition mounted from a combination of church and Völkisch movement agitation and pamphlet campaigns.[7] Nazis began to harass Bible Students, with SA members also disrupting meetings.[4]
From 1922, German Bible Students were arrested on charges of illegal peddling as they publicly distributed Watch Tower Society literature. Between 1927 and 1930, almost 5000 charges were pressed against members of the religion, and although most ended in acquittals[8][9] some "severe sentences" were also handed down.[10]
From 1930 calls for state intervention against the Bible Students increased and on March 28, 1931 Reich president Paul von Hindenburg issued the Decree for the Resistance of Political Acts of Violence, which provided for action to be taken in cases in which religious organizations, institutions or customs were "abused or maliciously disparaged".[11] Bavaria became the first German state where the decree was used against the Bible Students, with a police order issued on November 18 to prohibit and confiscate all Bible Student publications throughout the state.[11] A second decree in 1932 widened the ban in other German states. By the end of 1932 more than 2300 charges against Bible Students were pending.[10]
Legislative developments[edit source]
Adolf Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933, and from that point persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses intensified. Witnesses, being politically neutral, refused to swear loyalty to the Nazi regime. Initially, Witness indifference to the Nazi state manifested itself in the refusal to raise their arms in the Nazi salute, join the German Labor Front, participate in Nazi welfare collections, perform air raid duties or participate in Nazi rallies and parades.[3] Nazi Party SA stormtroopers raided the homes of Witnesses who failed to vote in a November 1933 plebiscite over German withdrawal from the League of Nations and marched them to the polling booths. Some were beaten or forced to walk holding placards declaring their "betrayal" of the fatherland; in one town a billboard was displayed in the marketplace listing Bible Student "traitors" who had not voted, and mobs also gathered outside Witnesses' homes to throw stones or chant. Similar action was taken at subsequent elections in the one-party state.[12]

 

 Chancellor Adolf Hitler.
Nazi authorities denounced Jehovah's Witnesses for their ties to the United States and derided the apparent revolutionary millennialism of their preaching that a battle of Armageddon would precede the rule of Christ on earth. They linked Jehovah's Witnesses to "international Jewry" by pointing to Witness reliance on certain Old Testament texts. The Nazis had grievances with many of the smaller Protestant groups on these issues, but only the Jehovah's Witnesses and the Christadelphian Church refused to bear arms or swear loyalty to the state.[3]
Activities of the Bible Students Association were banned in the states of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (April 10, 1933) and Bavaria (April 13). When Witnesses responded with a nationwide house-to-house booklet distribution campaign, many were arrested and within a week bans were extended to the states of Saxony and Hessen. Publications were also confiscated in some states. On April 24 police seized the Bible Student headquarters at Magdeburg, withdrawing five days later after US diplomatic efforts. From mid-May other states issued decrees outlawing the Bible Students and by the middle of June they were banned in almost every state. In one state's decree, the rationale for the ban was said to be that Bible Students were "imposing" on householders Watch Tower Society journals "which contain malicious attacks on the major Christian churches and their institutions".[13][14]
Prussia, Germany's biggest state, imposed a ban on June 24, explaining that the Bible Students were attracting and harboring subversive former members of Communist and Marxist parties. Its decree added that the Bible Students:

...are obviously involved in agitation against political and religious institutions in word and written form. By declaring both institutions as agencies of Satan, they undermine the very foundation of life in the people's community. In their numerous publications ... they deliberately and maliciously misrepresent Bible accounts for the purpose of ridiculing State and church institutions. One of the characteristics of their struggle is a fanatical manipulation of their followers ... It is therefore obvious that the above-mentioned association tends to be in complete opposition to the present state and its cultural and moral structures.[13]
On June 25, 1933 about 7000 Witnesses assembled at the Wilmersdorfer Tennishallen in Berlin where a 3800-word "Declaration of Facts" was issued. The document, written by Watch Tower Society president J.F. Rutherford, asserted the religion's political neutrality, appealed for the right to publicly preach and claimed it was the victim of a misinformation campaign by other religions.[15] Some 2.1 million copies of the declaration, reproduced as a four-page pamphlet, were distributed publicly throughout Germany, with a copy also sent to Hitler accompanied by a seven-page cover letter assuring the Chancellor that the IBSA "was not in opposition to the national government of the German Reich", but that, to the contrary, "the entirely religious, nonpolitical objectives and efforts of the Bible Students" were "completely in agreement with the corresponding goals of the national government".[16] German historian Detlef Garbe described the declaration as part of the religion's efforts to adapt at a time of increasing persecution,[17] while Canadian historian Professor James Penton, a former Jehovah's Witness and critic of the religion, claimed the declaration was a compromising document that proves "that Watch Tower leaders were attempting to pander to the Nazis"[18]—an allegation the Watch Tower Society rejected in a 1998 magazine article.[19]

 

 Watch Tower Society president Joseph Rutherford.
The distribution of the declaration prompted a new wave of persecution against German Witnesses.[20] On June 28 thirty stormtroopers occupied the branch office for a second time, closing the factory, sealing the printing presses and hoisting the swastika over the building. In late August, authorities used 25 trucks to transport about 70 tonnes of Watch Tower literature and Bibles to the city's outskirts and publicly burned them. Preaching activities and meetings in private homes continued, though the threat of Gestapo raids caused many believers to withdraw association and activity in some places ceased.[21] When authorities discovered banned literature was being smuggled into Germany from abroad, Bavarian police ordered the confiscation of mail of all known Bible Students and expressed irritation that their activity was increasing rather than ceasing.[21]
By early 1934 Rutherford had concluded that an improvement in conditions within Germany was unlikely. On February 9, 1934 the Watch Tower Society president sent a strongly worded letter to Hitler, asking the chancellor to allow the Witnesses to assemble and worship without hindrance, warning that if he failed to do so by March 24, the organization would publicise their "unjust treatment" throughout the world. He threatened that Jehovah God would also punish Hitler and destroy him at Armageddon. The society's German branch president Paul Balzereit directed members that they should continue to distribute The Watchtower, but that meetings be kept to about three to five people in size and public preaching be discontinued. But in September 1934, at an international convention of 3500 Witnesses in Basel, Switzerland, under the theme "Fear Them Not", Rutherford reversed the instruction. He urged the 1000 German Witnesses present to resume completely their preaching activity, starting with a collective witnessing effort on October 7. The convention also passed a resolution of protest, a copy of which was sent to Hitler with the warning: "Refrain from further persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses; otherwise God will destroy you and your national party." On October 8 an international campaign was launched to flood the Reich chancellory with telegrams and letters of protest.[22]
In late 1934 all state bans against the Witnesses were replaced with a prohibition at the Reich level. State governments were instructed in July 1935 to confiscate all Watch Tower Society publications, including Bibles and in December nine Watch Tower leaders were sentenced to up to 2½ years' jail for defying bans. Yet throughout 1933 and 1934 some courts continued to acquit Witnesses after legal and constitutional challenges.[23]

 

 Nazi renunciation document
When Germany reintroduced universal military service in 1935, Jehovah's Witnesses generally refused to enroll. Although they were not pacifists, they refused to bear arms for any political power. The Nazis prosecuted Jehovah's Witnesses for failing to report for conscription and arrested those who did missionary work for undermining the morale of the nation. John Conway, a British historian, stated that they were “against any form of collaboration with the Nazis and against service in the army.”[24]
Children of Jehovah's Witnesses also suffered under the Nazi regime. In classrooms, teachers ridiculed children who refused to give the Heil Hitler salute or sing patriotic songs. Principals found reasons to expel them from school. Following the lead of adults, classmates shunned or beat the children of Witnesses. On occasion, authorities sought to remove children from their Witness parents and send them to other schools, orphanages, or private homes to be brought up as "good Germans".[3]
Jehovah's Witnesses could, however, escape persecution and personal harm by renouncing their religious beliefs. From 1935 Gestapo officers offered members a document to sign indicating renouncement of their faith, submission to state authority, and support of the German military. By signing the document, individuals vowed to refrain from any association with members of the IBSA for the purposes of studying the Bible, The Watchtower or other Bible Student publications, refrain from participating in any Bible Student activities and also report to authorities any observations that members were continuing the organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses.[2] Garbe says a "relatively high number" of people signed the statement before the war, but "extremely low numbers" of Bible Student prisoners did so in concentration camps in later years.[25]
Punishment[edit source]
From 1933 Witnesses working in post offices, railway stations or other civil service jobs began to be dismissed for refusing to give the compulsory Hitler salute. From August 1934 they could also lose their jobs for refusing to take an official oath swearing loyalty and obedience to Hitler. Teachers were required to sign a statement confirming they were not members of the International Bible Students Association and were fired if they refused. Jehovah's Witnesses were dismissed in the private sector as well, often at the insistence of the German Labor Front (DAF) or Nazi Party members. In 1936 the Nazi press urged that Bible Students be removed from all German companies, while self-employed members of the religion were denied professional or business licences to carry out their work on the basis that their refusal to join Nazi organizations marked them as "politically unreliable".[26]

 

 Memorial plaque at Sachsenhausen concentration camp
The state confiscated motor vehicles and bicycles used by Witnesses for their business, withdrew driver's licences, withdrew pensions and evicted Witnesses from their homes. Schoolchildren were required to sing the Horst Wessel song and Deutschlandlied at a flag salute roll call, give the Hitler salute and take part in ceremonies honoring Hitler; those who refused were beaten by teachers and sometimes by classmates, while many were also expelled. From March 1936 authorities began removing Witness children from their parents, forcing some of them to undergo "corrective training".[27]
From early 1935, Gestapo officers began widening their use of "protective detention", usually when judges failed to convict Witnesses on charges of defying the Bible Student ban. Bible Students deemed to "present an imminent danger to the National Socialist state because of their activities" were from that point not handed to courts for punishment but sent directly to concentration camps for incarceration for several months, but even those who completed their prison terms were routinely arrested by the Gestapo upon release and taken into protective custody.[28]
More brutal methods of punishment began to be applied from 1936, including horsewhipping, prolonged daily beatings, the torture of family members and the threat of shooting. Some Witnesses were placed in mental institutions and subjected to psychiatric treatment; sterilization was ordered for some deemed to be "stubborn" in their refusal to denounce their religion.
Following an assembly in Lucerne, Switzerland in early September 1936 up to 3000 copies of a resolution of protest were sent to government, public and clerical leaders, stepping up the Watch Tower Society's anti-Catholic polemic. Several German Witnesses who attended the convention were arrested by waiting police as they returned to their homes and between August and September the Gestapo arrested more than 1000 members. The society responded with a pamphlet campaign on December 12, dropping up to 200,000 copies of the Lucerne resolution in mailboxes and also leaving them at phone booths, park benches and parked cars. Those arrested in subsequent police raids were sentenced to up to two years in prison. The number of arrests increased; in Dresden alone as many as 1500 Witnesses had been arrested by mid-1937. Another letterbox campaign was carried out in June 1937, a year in which the Watch Tower Society announced German Witnesses had distributed more than 450,000 books and booklets in 12 months.[29][30]
Compulsory military service for all men aged between 18 and 45 was introduced by Hitler in March 1935. No exemptions were provided for religious or conscientious reasons and Witnesses who refused to serve or take the oath of allegiance to Hitler were sent to prison or concentration camp, generally for terms of one or two years. At the outbreak of war in August 1939, more serious punishments were applied. A decree was enacted that greatly increased penal regulations during periods of war and states of emergency and included in the decree was an offense of "demoralization of the armed forces"; any refusal to perform military service or public inducement to this effect would be punishable by death. Between August 1939 and September 1940, 152 Bible Students appeared before the highest military court of the Wehrmacht charged with demoralization of the armed forces and 112 were executed, usually by beheading. Garbe estimates about 250 German and Austrian Jehovah's Witnesses were executed during World War II as a result of military court decisions. In November 1939 another regulation was issued providing for the jailing of anyone who supported or belonged to an "anti-military association" or displayed an "anti-military attitude", which allowed authorities to impose prison sentences on the charge of IBSA membership. Death penalties were applied frequently after 1943.[31]
Concentration camps[edit source]
From 1935 the authorities began sending hundreds of Jehovah's Witnesses to concentration camps, where they were imprisoned with Communists, Socialists, other political prisoners and union members. In May 1938 they accounted for 12 percent of all prisoners at Buchenwald concentration camp near Weimar; by May 1939 they represented 40 percent of all prisoners at Schloss Lichentenburg, the central concentration camp for women, though as the total number of prisoners increased rapidly, the proportion of Witnesses generally fell to about 3 percent.[32] About 2000 Witnesses were eventually sent to concentration camps, where they were identified by purple triangles; as many as 1200 died in custody, including 250 who were executed.[33][34] Garbe claims members of the religion were special objects of hatred by the SS, receiving beatings, whippings and public humiliation and given the dirtiest and most laborious work details for refusing to salute, stand at attention or sing Nazi songs. They were subjected to high-pressure jets of ice-cold water from fire hydrants and subjected to arbitrary acts of torture including pushing a fully laden wheelbarrow with their necks while crawling on hands and knees. Others were forced to stand still for an entire day in the heat or cold or were confined in groups in small closets in an attempt to suffocate them.[35] From March to December 1938 Jehovah's Witnesses in Buchenwald were not allowed to send or receive letters or to purchase food. Many approached starvation and were forced to eat leaves from trees and bushes. Many were forced to engage in a "drill" that included rolling, creeping, hopping and running for 75 minutes while camp guards kicked and beat them, while others, forced to work in stone quarries, were refused medical attention when sick.[36] Despite persecution, Jehovah's Witnesses continued to hold secret religious gatherings inside the camps.
Conditions for Witnesses improved in 1942, when they were increasingly given work details that required little supervision, such as farming, gardening, transportation and unloading goods, while others worked in civilian clothing in a health resort, as housekeepers for Nazi officials or were given construction and craft tasks at military buildings.[37]
Causes of persecution and Nazi motives[edit source]
Jehovah's Witnesses were one of a range of religious denominations against whom authorities took action from 1933, declaring that they "contributed to the ideological fragmentation of the German people", preventing the forming of a united German community.[38] Historians including Canadian Michael H. Kater, Christine Elizabeth King from England and Austrian Wolfgang Neugebauer have suggested the extraordinary animosity between National Socialism and Bible Student teachings was rooted in the similarity in structure of both ideologies, which were based on authoritarianism and totalitarianism and which each believed had a monopoly on the "truth".[39][40] Kater wrote:

Just as the National Socialist ideology, so were also the teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses dominated not by a democratic but an authoritarian policy. Both systems were totalitarian in that they strictly integrated national comrades as well as fellow believers into the respective authoritarian structure and requested them to give up their own personal identity for the objectives of the system. While the National Socialists accepted the ""Fuhrer State", the "Earnest Bible Students" submitted to the "Theocracy", in which not the Fuhrer, but Jehovah, was the dictatorial ruler. Since both groups claimed exclusiveness, this inevitably had to result in conflict. A Bible Student who had devoted himself to Jehovah was in no way able to carry out the duties that the National Socialist State demanded of him as a national comrade.[41]
Garbe accepts that both ideologies claimed to represent the "epitome of truth", demanded the person as a whole, tolerated no questioning of ideology and also held a common belief in salvation utopias for certain parts of humankind and the vision of a Thousand-Year Reign. But pitted against a considerably more powerful organization, the religion's efforts were doomed to fail.[42]
German writer Falk Pingel argued that the source of controversy between the Bible Students and National Socialists was their determination to continue their religious activities despite restrictions[43] and Garbe, noting that the increasing repression by authorities simply provoked the religion's determination to go underground and maintain their activity, concludes that "the extraordinary severity with which Jehovah's Witnesses were persecuted resulted from a conflict that gradually escalated in an interaction of action and reaction ... the authorities responsible for the persecution always responded with increasing severity to the continuous stubbornness of the IBSA members".[42] He said the National Socialists were baffled by an opponent that, convinced it was being directed by God's channel, did not back down under intensified persecution, as expected. He wrote:

These factors could have contributed to the fact that ... efforts to break their resolve were intensified and even more brutal. From this point of view, the IBSA members contributed to a certain extent to the severity of the NS actions, but this certainly does not mean that they intentionally provoked these measures.[42]
Penton noted that in August 1933 then branch overseer Martin Harbeck directed members that they should cease distributing literature and holding meetings without police permission. He said the organization's later decision to abandon caution and direct members to intensify their preaching efforts was a "reckless" behavior that caused Witnesses and their families more suffering than was necessary. Hitler, Penton argued, had become highly popular with the German populace by 1936, yet Witnesses persisted in distributing a Rutherford booklet that described the chancellor as "of unsound mind, cruel, malicious and ruthless". He said the international campaign to swamp Hitler with telegrams of protest in October 1934 infuriated the chancellor and was a major factor in bringing greater governmental persecution on them. Citing Dietrich Hellmund's description of their "incredible public militancy", he wrote: "Jehovah's Witnesses were the most stridently outspoken conscientious objectors in the country, and the Nazis had no intention of putting up with them ... No movement can constantly heap insults on all other religions, the business community and national governments in the way that the Bible Student-Jehovah's Witnesses did from 1918 onward without provoking a reaction."[44][45]
Scholars are divided over the ultimate intention of the Nazi regime towards Jehovah's Witnesses. Garbe believes the Gestapo considered members of the religion to be "incorrigible" elements who had to be ruthlessly eliminated.[46] The 1934 telegram protest had prompted an "hysterical" Hitler to vow that "this brood will be exterminated in Germany"[47] and he repeated the threat in August 1942.[48] Watch Tower Society writer Wolfram Slupina claims the Nazis "attempted to consign the Witnesses to oblivion by systematically exterminating them". But Penton has argued there is abundant evidence that the Nazis had no intention to eradicate members:

Rather, they wanted to break their opposition to the values of the Third Reich and turn them into loyal German citizens ... The Witnesses were not candidates for destruction in the way that Jews, Gypsies, and homosexuals were. Almost none were gassed. More important, during the last three years of the Second World War, they became very useful to the SS.[49]
See also[edit source]
Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses
Declaration of Facts
References[edit source]
1.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 100, 102, 514. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
2.^ a b Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi-Regime, Michael Berenbaum
3.^ a b c d Laqueur, Walter; Baumel, Judith Tydor (2001). The Holocaust encyclopedia. Yale University Press. pp. 346–50. ISBN 978-0-300-08432-0. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
4.^ a b Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: Sectarian Politics Under Persecution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 144. ISBN 0-8020-8678-0.
5.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 45. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
6.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 48–51. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
7.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 54–59. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
8.^ Saarbrücker Landes Zeitung, December 16, 1929, as cited in 1974 Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1974, pg 102: "Unfortunately the police have been powerless in doing anything about the work of the Bible Students. Arrests made up until now ... have all ended up in acquittal."
9.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 62, 570 note 151. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
10.^ a b 1974 Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1974, pg 102-111.
11.^ a b Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 65. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
12.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 139–141. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
13.^ a b Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 73–83. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
14.^ Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: Sectarian Politics Under Persecution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 150. ISBN 0-8020-8678-0.
15.^ Declaration of Facts English translation
16.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 90, 91. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
17.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 87–91. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
18.^ Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: Sectarian Politics Under Persecution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 71–75. ISBN 0-8020-8678-0.
19.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses–Courageous in the Face of Nazi Peril", Awake!, July 8, 1998, pgs 10-14.
20.^ Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: Sectarian Politics Under Persecution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-8020-8678-0.
21.^ a b Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 92–99. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
22.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 105–112. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
23.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 117–135. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
24.^ p.251,260 “Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi-Regime 1933-1945
25.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 286–291. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
26.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 149–159. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
27.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 162–179, 183. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
28.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 252–3, 277. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
29.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 226–7, 230, 233–243. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
30.^ Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: Sectarian Politics Under Persecution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 173, 177. ISBN 0-8020-8678-0.
31.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 341–367. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
32.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 394–5. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
33.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 484. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
34.^ Johannes S. Wrobel, Jehovah’s Witnesses in National Socialist Concentration Camps, 1933 – 45, Religion, State & Society, Vol. 34, No. 2, June 2006, pp. 89-125.
35.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 398–416. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
36.^ Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: Sectarian Politics Under Persecution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 188. ISBN 0-8020-8678-0.
37.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 440–447. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
38.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 101. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
39.^ Neugebauer, Wolfgang (1984). Widerstand und Verfolgung in Wien, 1934-1945: Eine Dokumentation (in German). Vienna. pp. 161, as cited by Garbe, pg 514.
40.^ King, Christine Elizabeth (1983), The Nazi State and the New Religions: Five Case Studies in Non-Conformity, Edwin Mellen, pp. 175–6, ISBN 0-889-468656
41.^ Kater, Michael (1969, as cited by Garbe, pg 514.). "Die Ernsten Bibelforscher im Dritten Reich". Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte (in German) 17: 187.
42.^ a b c Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 514–7, 520–1, 523. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
43.^ Falk Pingel, Häftlinge unter SS-Herrschaft: Widerstand, Selbstbehauptung und Vernichtung in Konzentrationslager, 1978, page 88, as quoted by Garbe, pg 518.
44.^ Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: Sectarian Politics Under Persecution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 155–6, 170, 176–7, 236. ISBN 0-8020-8678-0.
45.^ Hesse, Hans, ed. (2003). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime: 1933-1945. Edition Temmen. pp. 344 isbn = 3–861–087502.
46.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 291. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
47.^ Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: Sectarian Politics Under Persecution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 167, 317–8. ISBN 0-8020-8678-0.
48.^ Garbe, Detlef (2008). Between Resistance and Martyrdom: Jehovah's Witnesses in the Third Reich. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 365. ISBN 0-299-20794-3.
49.^ Penton, James (2004). Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: Sectarian Politics Under Persecution. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. pp. 225, 237. ISBN 0-8020-8678-0.
Further reading[edit source]
Hesse, Hans (editor) Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi-Regime: 1933-1945
Reynaud, Michael. The Jehovah's Witnesses and the Nazis: Persecution, Deportation, and Murder, 1933-1945
Paul Johnson, A History of Christianity, ISBN 0-689-10728-5
Judith Tydor Baumel, Walter Laqueur:The Holocaust Encyclopedia, ISBN 0-300-08432-3
Michael Berenbaum,The World Must Know: The History of the Holocaust as Told in United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, ISBN 0-316-09134-0
External links[edit source]
[1] - Official Site of Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses under Nazism and Communism - List of books
Jehovah's Witnesses under dictatorships - List of Internet resources
The Case of the Jehovah's Witnesses - Shoah Resource Center - Yad Vashem
Non-Jewish Victims of Persecution in Nazi Germany - About the Holocaust - Yad Vashem
English Translation of "Declaration of Facts"
English Translation of Declaration of Facts Cover Letter
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Memorial and Museum AUSCHWITZ-BIRKENAU
Center for Holocaust & Genocide Studies

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Criticism of Jehovah's Witnesses

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Jehovah's Witnesses

Overview

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Jehovah's Witnesses have attracted criticism from mainstream Christianity, some members of the medical community, some former members and some commentators over their beliefs and practices. The religion has been accused of doctrinal inconsistency and reversals, failed predictions, mistranslation of the Bible, harsh treatment of former members and autocratic and coercive leadership. Criticism has also focused on their rejection of blood transfusions, particularly in life-threatening medical situations, and claims that they have failed to report cases of sexual abuse to the authorities. Many of the claims are denied by Jehovah's Witnesses and some have also been disputed by courts and religious scholars.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Doctrinal criticisms 1.1 Failed predictions
1.2 Changes of doctrine
1.3 United Nations association
1.4 Fall of Jerusalem
1.5 Evolution
2 Social criticisms 2.1 Authoritarianism and denial of free speech
2.2 Description as a "cult"
2.3 Coercion
2.4 Shunning
2.5 Blood 2.5.1 Fractions and components
2.5.2 Storing and donation
2.5.3 Legal considerations
2.5.4 Animal blood
2.6 Reporting of sexual abuse
3 Biblical criticisms
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
7 External links

Doctrinal criticisms[edit source]
Failed predictions[edit source]
Main article: Watch Tower Society unfulfilled predictions
See also: Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses
The beliefs unique to Jehovah's Witnesses involve their interpretations of the second coming of Christ, the millennium and the kingdom of God. Watch Tower Society publications have made, and continue to make, predictions about world events they believe were prophesied in the Bible.[1] Some of those early predictions were described as "established truth",[2] and "beyond a doubt".[3] Witnesses are told to accept such teachings without question[4][5][6] and face expulsion if they oppose them.[7][8]
Failed predictions that were either explicitly stated or strongly implied, particularly linked to dates in 1914, 1918, 1925 and 1975, have led to the alteration or abandonment of some doctrines. The Society's publications have at times dismissed previous statements, asserting that members had "read into the Watch Tower statements that were never intended."[9] or that the beliefs of members were "based on wrong premises."[10] Other failed predictions are ignored; in the book, The Finished Mystery (1917), events were applied to the years 1918 to 1925 that earlier had been held to occur prior to 1914. When the new interpretations also failed to transpire, the 1926 edition of the book altered the statements and removed the dates.[11]
Raymond Franz, a critic and former Witness, has cited publications that claimed God has used Jehovah's Witnesses as a collective prophet.[12] Critics including James A. Beverley have accused the religion of false prophecy for making those predictions, particularly because of assertions in some cases that the predictions were beyond doubt or had been approved by God, but describes its record of telling the future as "pathetic".[13][14][15][16] Beverley says the Watch Tower Society has passed judgment on others who have falsely predicted the end of the world (he cites a 1968 Awake! that says other groups were "guilty of false prophesying" after having "predicted an 'end to the world', even announcing a specific date").[17][18]
The Watch Tower Society rejects accusations that it is a false prophet.[19][20] It says its explanations of Bible prophecy are not infallible[21][22][23] and that its predictions are not claimed explicitly as "the words of Jehovah."[19] It states that some of its expectations have needed adjustment because of eagerness for God's kingdom, but that those adjustments are no reason to "call into question the whole body of truth."[24] Raymond Franz claims that the Watch Tower Society tries to evade its responsibility when citing human fallibility as a defense, adding that the Society represents itself as God's appointed spokesman, and that throughout its history has made many emphatic predictions. Franz adds that the organization's eagerness for the Millennium does not give it license to impugn the motives of those who fail to accept its predictions.[6]
George D. Chryssides has suggested widespread claims that Witnesses "keep changing the dates" are a distortion and misunderstanding of Watch Tower Society chronology. He argues that, although there have been failures in prophetic speculation, the changing views and dates of the Jehovah's Witnesses are more largely attributable to changed understandings of biblical chronology than to failed predictions. Chryssides states, "For the Jehovah’s Witnesses prophecy serves more as a way of discerning a divine plan in human history than a means to predicting the future."[25]
Predictions (by date of publication) include:
1877: Christ's kingdom would hold full sway over the earth in 1914; the Jews, as a people, would be restored to God's favor; the "saints" would be carried to heaven.[26]
1891: 1914 would be "the farthest limit of the rule of imperfect men."[27]
1904: "World-wide anarchy" would follow the end of the Gentile Times in 1914.[28]
1916: World War I would terminate in Armageddon and the rapture of the "saints".[29]
1917: In 1918, Christendom would go down as a system to oblivion and be succeeded by revolutionary governments. God would "destroy the churches wholesale and the church members by the millions." Church members would "perish by the sword of war, revolution and anarchy." The dead would lie unburied. In 1920 all earthly governments would disappear, with worldwide anarchy prevailing.[30]
1920: Messiah's kingdom would be established in 1925 and bring worldwide peace. God would begin restoring the earth. Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and other faithful patriarchs would be resurrected to perfect human life and be made princes and rulers, the visible representatives of the New Order on earth. Those who showed themselves obedient to God would never die.[31]
1922: The anti-typical "jubilee" that would mark God's intervention in earthly affairs would take place "probably the fall" of 1925.[32]
1924: God's restoration of Earth would begin "shortly after" October 1, 1925. Jerusalem would be made the world's capital. Resurrected "princes" such as Abel, Noah, Moses and John the Baptist would give instructions to their subjects around the world by radio, and airplanes would transport people to and from Jerusalem from all parts of the globe in just "a few hours".[33]
1938: Armageddon was too close for marriage or child bearing.[34]
1941: There were only "months" remaining until Armageddon.[35]
1942: Armageddon was "immediately before us."[36]
1966: It would be 6000 years since man's creation in the fall of 1975 and it would be "appropriate" for Christ's thousand-year reign to begin at that time.[37] Time was "running out, no question about that."[38] The "immediate future" was "certain to be filled with climactic events ... within a few years at most", the final parts of Bible prophecy relating to the "last days" would undergo fulfillment as Christ's reign began.
1967: The end-time period (beginning in 1914) was claimed to be so far advanced that the time remaining could "be compared, not just to the last day of a week, but rather, to the last part of that day".[39]
1968: No one could say "with certainty" that the battle of Armageddon would begin in 1975, but time was "running out rapidly" with "earthshaking events" soon to take place.[40] In March 1968 there was a "short period of time left", with "only about ninety months left before 6000 years of man's existence on earth is completed".[41]
1969: The existing world order would not last long enough for young people to grow old; the world system would end "in a few years." Young Witnesses were told not to bother pursuing tertiary education for this reason.[42]
1971: The "battle in the day of Jehovah" was described as beginning "[s]hortly, within our twentieth century".[43]
1974: There was just a "short time remaining before the wicked world's end" and Witnesses were commended for selling their homes and property to "finish out the rest of their days in this old system in the pioneer service."[44]
1984: There were "many indications" that "the end" was closer than the end of the 20th century.[45]
1989: The Watchtower asserted that Christian missionary work begun in the first century would "be completed in our 20th century".[46] When republished in bound volumes, the phrase "in our 20th century" was replaced with the less specific "in our day".
Changes of doctrine[edit source]

History of Eschatological Doctrine

Last Days Begin
Christ's Return
Christ as King
Resurrection of 144,000
Judgment of Religion
Great Tribulation
1879–1920 1799 1874 1878 1914, 1915, 1918, 1920
1920–1925 1925
1925–1927 1914 1878 1878 within generation of 1914
1927–1930 1918
1930–1933 1919
1933–1966 1914
1966–1975 1975?
1975–1995 within generation of 1914
1995-present imminent
See also: Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine
Although Watch Tower Society literature claims the Society's founder, Charles Taze Russell, was directed by God's Holy Spirit, through which he received "flashes of light",[47] it has substantially altered doctrines since its inception and abandoned many of Russell's teachings.[48] Many of the changes have involved biblical chronology that had earlier been claimed as beyond question.[49][50][51][52][53] Watch Tower Society publications state that doctrinal changes result from a process of "progressive revelation", in which God gradually reveals his will.[54][55]
Date of beginning of Christ's kingdom rule. Russell taught that Jesus had become king in April 1878.[56][57] In 1922, Joseph Rutherford altered the date to 1914.[48]
Date of resurrection of anointed Christians. After the failure of predictions that Christ's chosen "saints" would be carried away to heaven in 1878,[58] Russell developed the teaching that those "dying in the Lord" from 1878 forward would have an immediate heavenly resurrection.[59] The Watch Tower confirmed the doctrine in 1925,[60] but two years later asserted this date was wrong[61] and that the beginning of the instant resurrection to heaven for faithful Christians was from 1918.[62]
Great Pyramid as a "stone witness" of God. Russell wrote in 1910 that God had the Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt built as a testimony to the truth of the Bible and proof of its chronology identifying the "last days".[63][64] In 1928 Rutherford rejected the doctrine and claimed the Pyramid had been built under the direction of Satan.[65]
Identity of "faithful and wise servant". Russell initially believed the "faithful and wise servant" of Matthew 24:45 was "every member of this body of Christ ... the whole body individually and collectively."[66] By 1886 he had altered his view and began explaining it was a person, not the Christian church.[67] Russell accepted claims by Bible Students that he was that "servant"[68][69][70] and in 1909 described as his "opponents" those who would apply the term "faithful and wise servant" to "all the members of the church of Christ" rather than to an individual.[71] By 1927 the Watch Tower Society was teaching that it was "a collective servant."[72]
Beginning of the "last days". From the earliest issues of the Watch Tower, Russell promoted the belief that the "last days" had begun in 1799 and would end in 1914.[73] As late as 1921 Watch Tower publications were still claiming the last days had begun in 1799.[74] In 1930 that date was abandoned and 1914 was fixed as the beginning of the last days.
Jews' role in God's Kingdom. Russell followed the view of Nelson H. Barbour, who believed that in 1914 Christ's kingdom would take power over all the earth and the Jews, as a people, would be restored to God's favor.[75] In 1889 Russell wrote that with the completion of the "Gentile Times" in 1914, Israel's "blindness" would subside and they would convert to Christianity.[76] The book Life (1929) noted that the return of Jews to Palestine signaled that the end was very close, because Jews would "have the favors first and thereafter all others who obey the Lord" under God's restoration of his kingdom.[77] In 1932 that belief was abandoned and from that date the Watch Tower Society taught that Witnesses alone were the Israel of God.[78]
Date of Christ's invisible presence. The Watch Tower Society taught for more than 60 years that this began in 1874, insisting in 1922 that the date was "indisputable".[79][80] In 1943 the society moved the event to 1914.[48][81][82]
Identity of the "superior authorities". Russell taught that the "superior authorities" of Romans 13:1, to whom Christians had to show subjection and obedience, were governmental authorities. In 1929 The Watchtower discarded this view, stating that the term referred only to God and Christ, and saying the change of doctrine was evidence of "advancing light" of truth shining forth to God's chosen people.[83] In 1952, The Watchtower stated that the words of Romans 13 "could never have applied to the political powers of Caesar’s world as wrongly claimed by the clergy of Christendom,"[84] and in 1960 The Watchtower described the earlier view as a factor that had caused the Bible Student movement to be "unclean" in God's eyes during the 1914–1918 period. Two years later, in 1962, The Watchtower reverted to Russell's initial doctrine.[83]
Identity and function of the Governing Body. Frequent mentions of the term "Governing Body" began in Watch Tower Society literature in the 1970s.[85] The Governing Body was initially identified as the Watch Tower Society's seven-member board of directors.[86] However, at the time, the board played no role in establishing Watchtower doctrines, and all such decisions since the Society's origins had been made by the Society's president.[87][88] A 1923 Watch Tower noted that Russell alone directed the policy and course of the Society "without regard to any other person on earth"[89] and both his successors, Rutherford and Knorr, also acted alone in establishing Watch Tower doctrines. An organizational change on January 1, 1976, for the first time gave the Governing Body the power to rule on doctrines[90] and become the ruling council of Jehovah's Witnesses.[91] Despite this, The Watchtower in 1971 claimed that a Governing Body of anointed Christians had existed since the 19th century to govern the affairs of God's anointed people.[92]
Treatment of disfellowshipped persons. In the 1950s when disfellowshipping became common, Witnesses were to have nothing to do with expelled members, not conversing with or acknowledging them.[93] Family members of expelled individuals were permitted occasional "contacts absolutely necessary in matters pertaining to family interests," but could not discuss spiritual matters with them.[94] In 1974 The Watchtower, acknowledging some unbalanced Witnesses had displayed unkind, inhumane and possibly cruel attitudes to those expelled,[95] relaxed restrictions on family contact, allowing families to choose for themselves the extent of association,[96] including whether or not to discuss some spiritual matters.[97] In 1981, a reversal of policy occurred, with Witnesses instructed to avoid all spiritual interaction with disfellowshipped ones, including with close relatives.[98] Witnesses were instructed not to greet disfellowshipped persons.[98][99][100] Parents were permitted to care for the physical needs of a disfellowshipped minor child; ill parents or physically or emotionally ill child could be accepted back into the home "for a time". Witnesses were instructed not to eat with disfellowshipped relatives and were warned that emotional influence could soften their resolve.[101] In 1980 the Witnesses' Brooklyn headquarters advised traveling overseers that a person need not be promoting "apostate views" to warrant disfellowshipping; it advised that "appropriate judicial action" be taken against a person who "continues to believe the apostate ideas and rejects what he has been provided" through The Watchtower.[102] The rules on shunning were extended in 1981 to include those who had resigned from the religion voluntarily.[103][104]
Fall of "Babylon the Great". Russell taught that the fall of the "world empire of false religion" had taken place in 1878 and predicted "Babylon's" complete destruction in 1914.[105] Rutherford claimed in 1917 that religion's final destruction would take place in 1918, explaining that God would destroy churches "wholesale" and that "Christendom shall go down as a system to oblivion."[106] In 1988 the Watch Tower Society claimed that release from prison in 1919 of senior Watchtower figures marked the fall of Babylon "as far as having any captive hold on God's people was concerned",[107] with her "final destruction" "into oblivion, never to recover", expected "in the near future."[108]
United Nations association[edit source]
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and the United Nations
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the United Nations is one of the 'superior authorities' that exist by God's permission, and that it presently serves a purpose in maintaining order, but do not support it politically and do not consider it to be the means to achieve peace and security. Jehovah's Witnesses also believe that the United Nations is the "image of the wild beast" of Revelation 13:1-18, and the second fulfillment of the "abominable thing that causes desolation" from Matthew 24:15; that it will be the means for the devastation of organized false religion worldwide;[109][110] and that, like all other political powers, it will be destroyed and replaced by God's heavenly kingdom.[111] Jehovah's Witnesses have denounced other religious organizations for having offered political support to the UN.[112]
On October 8, 2001, an article was published in the British Guardian newspaper questioning the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society's registration as a non-governmental organization (NGO) with the United Nations Department of Public Information and accusing the Watch Tower Society of hypocrisy.[113] Within days of the article's publication, the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society submitted a formal request for disassociation, removing all association with the United Nations Department of Public Information,[114] and released a letter stating that the reason for becoming associated with the United Nations Department of Information (DPI) was to access their facilities, and that they had not been aware of the change in language contained in the criteria for NGO association.[115] However, when the Watch Tower Society sought NGO association, "the organization agreed to meet criteria for association, including support and respect of the principles of the Charter of the United Nations", acknowledging that the purpose of membership is to "promote knowledge of the principles and activities of the United Nations."[116] The official UN/DPI website states that "association of NGOs with DPI does not constitute their incorporation into the United Nations system."[117]
Fall of Jerusalem[edit source]
Jehovah's Witnesses assert that Jerusalem was destroyed by the Babylonians in 607 BC and completely uninhabited for exactly seventy years. This date is critical to their selection of October 1914 for the arrival of Christ in kingly power—2520 years after October 607 BC.[118][119] Non-Witness scholars do not support 607 BC for the event; most scholars date the destruction of Jerusalem to within a year of 587 BC, twenty years later.[119] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that periods of seventy years mentioned in the books of Jeremiah and Daniel refer to the Babylonian exile of Jews. They also believe that the gathering of Jews in Jerusalem, shortly after their return from Babylon, officially ended the exile in Jewish month of Tishrei (Ezra 3:1). According to the Watch Tower Society, October 607 BC is derived by counting back seventy years from Tishrei of 537 BC, based on their belief that Cyrus' decree to release the Jews during his first regnal year "may have been made in late 538 B.C. or before March 4-5, 537 B.C."[120][121] Non-Witness sources assign the return to either 538 BC or 537 BC.[122][123][124][125][126]
In The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return, Carl O. Jonsson, a former Witness, presents eighteen lines of evidence to support the traditional view of neo-Babylonian chronology. He accuses the Watch Tower Society of deliberately misquoting sources in an effort to bolster their position.[127] The Watch Tower Society claims that biblical chronology is not always compatible with secular sources, and that the Bible is superior. It claims that secular historians make conclusions about 587 BC based on incorrect or inconsistent historical records, but accepts those sources that identify Cyrus' capture of Babylon in 539 BC, claiming it has no evidence of being inconsistent and hence can be used as a pivotal date.[128][120][129]
Rolf Furuli, a Jehovah's Witness and a lecturer in Semitic languages, presents a study of 607 BC in support of the Witnesses' conclusions in Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Persian Chronology Compared with the Chronology of the Bible, Volume 1: Persian Chronology and the Length of the Babylonian Exile of the Jews.[130] Lester L. Grabbe, professor of theology at the University of Hull, said of Furuli's study: "Once again we have an amateur who wants to rewrite scholarship. ... F. shows little evidence of having put his theories to the test with specialists in Mesopotamian astronomy and Persian history."[131]
The relative positions of the moon, stars and planets indicated in the Babylonian astronomical diary VAT 4956 are used by secular historians to establish 568 BC as the thirty-seventh year of Nebuchadnezzar's reign.[132] The Watch Tower Society claims that unnamed researchers have confirmed that the positions of the moon and stars on the tablet are instead consistent with astronomical calculations for 588 BC; the Society claims that the planets mentioned in the tablet cannot be clearly identified.[133] The Watch Tower Society's article cites David Brown as stating, "some of the signs for the names of the planets and their positions are unclear,"[133] however Brown indicates that the Babylonians also had unique names for the known planets;[134] Jonsson confirms that the unique names are those used in VAT 4956.[135] According to the Watch Tower Society, astronomical calculations based on ancient writings are unreliable and prone to error.[136]
Evolution[edit source]
A number of Watch Tower Society publications attempt to refute the theory of evolution in favor of divine creation.[137][138][139][140][141] The Watch Tower society's views of evolution have met with criticism typical of objections to evolution. Gary Botting described his own difficulty as a Jehovah's Witness to reconcile creation with simple observations of species diversification, especially after discussions with J.B.S. Haldane in India.[142]
The Society's 1985 publication, Life — How Did it Get Here? By Evolution or by Creation? is criticized for its dependency on Francis Hitching, who is cited thirteen times. The book presents Hitching — actually a TV writer and paranormalist with no scientific credentials — as an evolutionary scientist.[143] Richard Dawkins also criticizes the book for implying that "chance" is the only alternative to deliberate design, stating, "[T]he candidate solutions to the riddle of improbability are not, as falsely implied, design and chance. They are design and natural selection."[144]
The Society dismisses Young Earth creationism (YEC) as "unscriptural and unbelievable",[145] and states that Jehovah's Witnesses "are not creationists", based on the more specific definition of believers in a 'young' earth created in six literal days: The Society instead teaches a form of Day-Age creationism.[146] According to a 1986 article in The Watchtower, "Jehovah's Witnesses reject the unreasonable theories of 'creationism' in favor of what the Bible really teaches about 'creation'."[147]
Social criticisms[edit source]
Authoritarianism and denial of free speech[edit source]
The religion's leadership has been described as autocratic and totalitarian, with criticism focusing on the Watch Tower Society's demands for the obedience and loyalty of Witnesses,[4][148] its intolerance of dissent or open discussion of doctrines and practices[149] and the practice of expelling and shunning members who cannot conscientiously agree with all the religion's teachings.[150][151][152]
Raymond Franz has accused the religion's Governing Body of resenting, deprecating and seeking to silence differences of viewpoint within the organization[153] and demanding organizational conformity that overrides personal conscience.[154] He claimed the Watch Tower Society confirmed its position when, in a 1954 court case in Scotland, Watch Tower Society legal counsel Hayden C. Covington said of Jehovah's Witnesses: "We must have unity ... unity at all costs".[155] Sociologist James A. Beckford noted that the Watch Tower movement demands uniformity of beliefs from its members;[156] George D. Chryssides has also reported that Witness publications teach that individuals' consciences are unreliable and need to be subordinated to scripture and to the Watch Tower organization.[157]
Sociologist Andrew Holden said that Witnesses are taught their theology in a highly mechanistic fashion, learning almost by rote.[158] Raymond Franz and others have described Jehovah's Witnesses' religious meetings as "catechistical" question-and-answer sessions in which questions and answers are both provided by the organization, placing pressure on members to reiterate its opinions.[159][160] Former Witnesses Heather and Gary Botting claimed Witnesses "are told what they should feel and think"[161] and members who do voice viewpoints different from those expressed in publications and at meetings are said to be viewed with suspicion.[162] Raymond Franz has claimed most Witnesses would be fearful to voice criticism of the organization for fear of being accused of disloyalty.[154] Authors have drawn attention to frequent Watch Tower warnings against the "dangers" and "infection" of "independent thinking", including questioning any of its published statements or teachings,[163][164][165][166] and instructions that members refrain from engaging in independent Bible research.[167][168][169] The Watch Tower Society also directs that members must not read criticism of the organization by "apostates"[170][171] or material published by other religions.[172][173] Heather and Gary Botting declared: "Jehovah's Witnesses will brook no criticism from within, as many concerned members who have attempted to voice alternative opinions regarding the basic doctrine or application of social pressure have discovered to their chagrin."[174] Beckford observed that the Society denies the legitimacy of all criticisms of itself and that the habit of questioning official doctrine is "strenuously combated at all organizational levels".[175] Witnesses are said to be under constant surveillance within the congregation[176] and are subject to a disciplinary system that encourages informers.[177][178]
Heather and Gary Botting argue that the power of the Watch Tower Society to control members is gained through the acceptance of the Society "quite literally as the voice of Jehovah – God's 'mouthpiece'."[161] Franz claims the concept of loyalty to God's organization has no scriptural support and serves only to reinforce the religion's authority structure, with its strong emphasis on human authority.[179] He has claimed The Watchtower has repeatedly blurred discussions of both Jesus Christ's loyalty to God and the apostles' loyalty to Christ to promote the view that Witnesses should be loyal to the Watch Tower organization.[180] Religion professor James A. Beverley describes the belief that organizational loyalty is equal to divine loyalty[181] as the "central myth" of Jehovah's Witnesses employed to ensure complete obedience.[182] Sociologist Andrew Holden has observed that Witnesses see no distinction between loyalty to Jehovah and to the movement itself;[183] Heather and Gary Botting have claimed that challenging the views of those higher in the hierarchy is regarded as tantamount to challenging God himself.[184]
The Society has described its intolerance of dissident and divergent doctrinal views within its ranks as "strict", but claims its stance is based on the scriptural precedent of 2 Timothy 2:17,18 in which the Apostle Paul condemns heretics Hymenaeus and Philetus who denied the resurrection of Jesus. It said: "Following such Scriptural patterns, if a Christian (who claims belief in God, the Bible, and Jesus) unrepentantly promotes false teachings, it may be necessary for him to be expelled from the congregation ... Hence, the true Christian congregation cannot rightly be accused of being harshly dogmatic."[185] Sociologist Rodney Stark says that Jehovah's Witness leaders are "not always very democratic" and members are expected to conform to "rather strict standards," but says enforcement tends to be informal, sustained by close bonds of friendship and that Jehovah's Witnesses see themselves as "part of the power structure rather than subject to it".[186] In a case involving Jehovah's Witnesses' activities in Russia, the European Court of Human Rights stated that the religion's requirements "are not fundamentally different from similar limitations that other religions impose on their followers' private lives" and that charges of "mind control" in that case were "based on conjecture and uncorroborated by fact."[187] Despite the intolerance of dissident views within the organisation, the Watch Tower Society and its affiliates have, through litigation, been instrumental in establishing civil liberties in many countries, including Canada and the United States.[188]
Description as a "cult"[edit source]
Authors Anthony A. Hoekema, Ron Rhodes[189] and Alan W. Gomes,[190] claim Jehovah's Witnesses is a religious cult. Hoekema bases his judgment on a range of what he describes as general characteristics of a cult, including the tendency to elevate peripheral teachings (such as door-to-door witnessing) to great prominence, extra-scriptural source of authority (Hoekema highlights Watch Tower teachings that the Bible may be understood only as it is interpreted by the Governing Body), a view of the group as the exclusive community of the saved (Watch Tower publications teach that Witnesses alone are God's people and only they will survive Armageddon) and the group's central role in eschatology (Hoekema says Witness publications claim the group was called into existence by God to fill in a gap in the truth neglected by existing churches, marking the climax of sacred history).[191]
Jehovah's Witnesses state that they are not a cult[192] and say that although individuals need proper guidance from God, they should do their own thinking.[193][194] Witnesses state that they are saved by the ransom sacrifice of God's Son and undeserved kindness, that there is no one that can earn salvation.[195] American religious scholar J. Gordon Melton,[196] cult deprogrammer John Bowen Brown II,[197] and Knocking producer Joel P. Engardio also reject the claims that Witnesses are a cult.[198][199] The two volume encyclopedia Contemporary American Religion stated: "Various critics and ex-members in recent years have wrongly labeled Jehovah’s Witnesses a 'cult.'"[200]
Coercion[edit source]
Since 1920 the Watch Tower Society has required all congregation members participating in the preaching work to turn in written reports of the amount of their activity,[201] explaining that the reports help the Society to plan its activities and identify areas of greater need[202] and help congregation elders to identify those who may need assistance.[203] In 1943 the Society imposed personal quotas, requiring all active Witnesses to spend at least 60 hours of door-to-door preaching per month, claiming these were "directions from the Lord".[204] Although these quotas were subsequently removed, Raymond Franz claims "invisible" quotas remained, obliging Witnesses to meet certain levels of preaching work to remain in good standing in the congregation[162] or to qualify for eldership.[154] Franz describes repeated urging for adherents to "put kingdom interests first" and devote increasing amounts of time to door-to-door preaching efforts as coercive pressure. He says many Witnesses constantly feel guilty that they are not doing more in "field activity".[154]
Former Witnesses Heather and Gary Botting, claiming an emphasis on a personal track record would mean that salvation is effectively being "bought" with "good works", observed: "No matter how long a Witness remains an active distributor of literature, the moment he ceases to be active he is regarded by his peers as good as dead in terms of achieving the ultimate goal of life everlasting in an earthly paradise ... Few realize upon entering the movement that the purchase price is open-ended and that the bill can never be paid in full until death or the advent of Armageddon."[161]
The Watchtower, however, noted that although public preaching is necessary, such works do not "save" a Christian and it urged Witnesses to examine their motive for engaging in preaching activity.[205]
Russian religious scholar Sergei Ivanenko, in a dissenting opinion to a report by a panel of experts to Moscow's Golovinsky Intermunicipal Court in 1999, stated, "It would be a serious mistake to represent the Religious Organization of Jehovah's Witnesses as a religion whose leadership forces its rank and file believers to engage in one form of activity or another, or place upon them strict restrictions or directives." Ivanenko, who based his view on a study of Watch Tower Society literature, concluded: "Jehovah's Witnesses strive to live in accord with Bible principles on the basis of an individual, voluntary choice ... This also applies in full measure to preaching." [206] James A. Beckford, a professor at the University of Warwick, England, who published a study of English Jehovah's Witnesses in 1975,[207] also told the court: "It is important for each of them to exercise free moral agency in choosing to study the Bible and to live in accordance with their interpretation of its message."[208] On June 10, 2010, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) stated in regards to a charge of coercion of family members, that "Quite often, the opposite is true: it is the resistance and unwillingness of non-religious family members to accept and to respect the [Jehovah's Witnesses] religious relative's freedom to manifest and practise his or her religion that is the source of conflict."[209]
Medical and legal commentators have also noted cases claiming that Witness medical patients were coerced to obey the religion's ban on blood transfusions.[210][211][212] In a case involving a review of a Russian district court decision, however, the ECHR found nothing in the judgments to suggest that any form of improper pressure or undue influence was applied. It noted: "On the contrary, it appears that many Jehovah’s Witnesses have made a deliberate choice to refuse blood transfusions in advance, free from time constraints of an emergency situation." The court said: "The freedom to accept or refuse specific medical treatment, or to select an alternative form of treatment, is vital to the principles of self-determination and personal autonomy. A competent adult patient is free to decide ... not to have a blood transfusion. However, for this freedom to be meaningful, patients must have the right to make choices that accord with their own views and values, regardless of how irrational, unwise or imprudent such choices may appear to others."[213]
Shunning[edit source]
Main articles: Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline and Shunning
Witnesses practice disfellowshipping of members who unrepentantly engage in "gross sin",[214] (most commonly for breaches of the Witnesses' code of personal morality),[215][216] and "remorseless apostasy".[217] The process of disfellowshipping is said to be carried to uphold God’s standards, preserve the congregation’s spiritual cleanness, and possibly prompt a change of attitude in the wrongdoer.[214] The practice requires that the expelled person be shunned by all members of the religion, including family members who do not live in the same home, unless they qualify for re-admission. A person who dies while disfellowshipped cannot be given a funeral at a Kingdom Hall.[218][219] Members often face difficulties and trauma once expelled because of their previously limited contact with the outside world.[220][221] The Watchtower's description of those who leave as being "mentally diseased" has drawn criticism from some current and former members; in Britain some have argued that the description may constitute a breach of laws regarding religious hatred.[222][223]
The Watch Tower Society has attracted criticism for disfellowshipping members who decide they cannot conscientiously agree with all the religion's teachings and practices. Sociologist Andrew Holden says that because the religion provides no valid reason for leaving, those who do choose to leave are regarded as traitors.[224] According to Raymond Franz, those who decide they cannot accept Watch Tower teachings and practices often live in a climate of fear, feeling they must constantly be on guard about what they say, do and read. He says those who do express any disagreement, even in a private conversation with friends, risk investigation and trial by a judicial committee as apostates or heretics[225] and classed as "wicked".[226]
Franz argues that the threat of expulsion for expressing disagreement with the Watch Tower Society's teachings is designed to create a sterile atmosphere in which the organization's teachings and policies can circulate without the risk of confronting serious questioning or adverse evidence.[227] The result, according to Holden, is that individuals may spend most of their lives suppressing doubts for fear of losing their relationships with friends and relatives.[228] Penton describes the system of judicial committees and the threat of expulsion as the ultimate control mechanism among the Witnesses;[229] Holden claims that shunning not only rids the community of defilement, but deters others from dissident behavior.[220] Sociologist Ronald Lawson has also noted that the religion allows little room for independence of thought, and no toleration of doctrinal diversity; he says those who deviate from official teachings are readily expelled and shunned.[230]
Watch Tower Society publications defend the practice of expelling and shunning those who "promote false teaching", claiming such individuals must be quarantined to prevent the spread of their "spiritual infection".[231] They have cited a dictionary definition of apostasy ("renunciation of a religious faith, abandonment of a previous loyalty") to rule that an individual who begins affiliating with another religion has disassociated from the Witnesses, warranting their shunning to protect the spiritual cleanness of the Witness congregation on the basis of the reference in 1 John 2:19 that those who leave Christianity are "not of our sort".[232] An individual's acceptance of a blood transfusion is similarly deemed as evidence of disassociation.[233] They say Witnesses also obey the "strong counsel" at 1 Corinthians 5:11 that Christians should "quit mixing in company" with people who unrepentantly reject certain scriptural standards.[234]
The Witnesses' judicial process has also been criticized. Hearings take place in secret,[229] with judicial committees filling the roles of judge, jury and prosecutor.[219] According to Franz, witnesses may present evidence but are not permitted to remain for the discussion[235] Critics Heather and Gary Botting have claimed that Witnesses accused of an offence warranting expulsion are presumed guilty until found innocent. They say the onus is on the accused to prove their innocence and if they make no attempt to do so—by failing to appear at a hearing set by the judicial committee—they are assumed to be guilty and unrepentant.[236]
When a decision is made regarding disfellowshipping or disassociation, an announcement is made that the person is "no longer one of Jehovah's Witnesses," at which point shunning is immediate. Members are not told whether the person has disassociated or has been disfellowshipped. Neither testimony nor evidence in support of the judicial decision are provided. Congregation members are told to accept the rulings without question and Witnesses who refuse to abide by a judicial committee decision will themselves suffer expulsion.[229] Members are forbidden to talk with the expelled member, removing any opportunity for the person to discuss or explain their actions.[235][237] Penton claims judicial committee members and the Watch Tower Society frequently ignore established procedures when dealing with troublesome individuals, conspiring to have them expelled in violation of Society rules.[238] Critics claim that Witness policies encourage an informer system to report to elders Witnesses suspected of having committed an act that could warrant expulsion, including deviating from organizational policies and teachings.[239][240]
Criticism has also been directed at the 1981 change of policy[241] that directed that persons who disassociate from (formally leave) the religion were to be treated as though they were disfellowshipped.[242][243] Holden says that as a result, those who do leave the religion are seldom allowed a dignified exit.[220] Heather and Gary Botting claim inactive Witnesses are often pressured to either become active or to disassociate themselves by declaring they no longer accept key Watch Tower Society doctrines.[236]
Blood[edit source]
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions
Jehovah's Witnesses reject transfusions of whole allogenic blood and its primary components (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma), and transfusions of stored autologous blood or its primary components. As a doctrine, Jehovah's Witnesses do not reject transfusion of whole autologous blood so long as it is not stored prior to surgery (e.g. peri-operative extraction and transfusion of autologous blood). This religious position is due to their belief that blood is sacred and represents life in God's eyes. Jehovah's Witnesses understand scriptures such as Leviticus 17:10-14 (which speaks of not eating blood) and Acts 15:29 ("abstain from blood")to include taking blood into the body via a transfusion.[244] Controversy has stemmed, however, from what critics state are inconsistencies in Witness policies on blood, claims that Witness patients are coerced into refusing blood and that Watch Tower literature distorts facts about transfusions and fails to provide information that would allow Witnesses to make an informed decision on the issue.[152]
Fractions and components[edit source]
In the case of minor fractions derived from blood, each individual is directed to follow their own conscience on whether these are acceptable.[245][246] This is because it is difficult to define at what point blood is no longer blood. As a substance is broken down into smaller and smaller parts it may or may not be considered the original substance. Therefore some of Jehovah's Witnesses personally choose to accept the use of blood fractions and some do not. However, if a fraction "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to them.[247]
Such a stance of dividing blood into major components and minor fractions rather than either accepting all blood or requiring all blood components to be poured out onto the ground has led to criticism from organizations such as the Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood.[248] Witnesses respond that blood as the fluid per se is not the real issue. They say the real issue is respect and obedience regarding blood, which they perceive as being God's personal property.[249][250] Members are allowed to eat meat that still contains small traces of blood remaining. Once blood is drained from an animal, the respect has been shown to God and then a person can eat the meat. Jehovah's Witnesses view of meat and blood is therefore different from the Jewish view that goes to great lengths to remove even minor traces of blood.[251][252]
According to lawyer Kerry Louderback-Wood, a former Jehovah's Witness,[253] the Watch Tower Society misrepresents the scope of allowed fractions. If taken together, they "total the entire volume of blood they came from".[254] An example of this can be seen in blood plasma, which consists of 90-96% water. The remaining amount consists mainly of albumin, globulins, fibrinogen and coagulation factors. These four fractions are allowable for use, but only if taken separately. Critics have likened this to banning the eating of a ham and cheese sandwich but allowing the eating of bread, ham and cheese separately.[255]
Storing and donation[edit source]
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that storing blood violates direction from the Bible to 'pour blood out onto the ground'. They do not donate blood except for uses they've individually pre-approved.[256] However, they are told that acceptance of blood fractions from donated blood is a matter of conscience. A 2006 issue of Jehovah's Witnesses' newsletter Our Kingdom Ministry stated, "Although [Jehovah's Witnesses] do not donate or store their own blood for transfusion purposes, some procedures or tests involving an individual’s blood are not so clearly in conflict with Bible principles. Therefore, each individual should make a conscientious decision" [emphasis added].[257] Critics have challenged these policies because acceptable blood fractions can only be derived from stored blood provided by donors.[258]
Legal considerations[edit source]
Regardless of the medical considerations, Jehovah Witnesses advocate that physicians should uphold the right of a patient to choose what treatments they do or do not accept (though a Witness is subject to religious sanctions if they exercise their right to choose a blood transfusion).[259] Accordingly, US courts tend not to hold physicians responsible for adverse health effects that a patient incurred out of his or her own requests.[260] However, the point of view that physicians must, in all circumstances, abide by the religious wishes of the patients is not acknowledged by all jurisdictions, such as was determined in a case involving Jehovah's Witnesses in France.
The situation has been controversial, particularly in the case of children. In the United States, many physicians will agree to explore and exhaust all non-blood alternatives in the treatment of children at the request of their legal guardians. Some state laws require physicians to administer blood-based treatment to minors if it is their professional opinion that it is necessary to prevent immediate death or severe permanent damage.[citation needed]
Kerry Louderback-Wood has claimed that Jehovah's Witnesses' legal corporations are potentially liable to significant claims for compensation if the religion misrepresents the medical risks of blood transfusions. Wood claims that constitutional guarantees of freedom of religion do not remove the legal responsibility that every person or organization has regarding misrepresenting secular fact.[261]
Animal blood[edit source]
The Watchtower has stated that "Various medical products have been obtained from biological sources, either animal or human ... Such commercialization of ... blood is hardly tempting for true Christians, who guide their thinking by God's perfect law. Our Creator views blood as sacred, representing God-given life ... blood removed from a creature was to be poured out on the ground, disposed of."[262]
Reporting of sexual abuse[edit source]
Main articles: Jehovah's Witnesses and child sex abuse and Silentlambs
Critics such as Silentlambs have accused Jehovah's Witnesses of employing organizational policies that make the reporting of sexual abuse difficult for members.[263][264] Some victims of sexual abuse have asserted that when reporting abuse they were ordered to maintain silence by their local elders to avoid embarrassment to both the accused and the organization.[265][266][267][268]
The religion's official policy on child protection, which discusses the procedures for reporting child sexual abuse, states that elders obey all legal requirements for reporting sex offenders, including reporting uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations where required by law. Elders are to discipline pedophiles in the congregation. Victims are permitted to notify the authorities if they wish to do so.[269]
While a Witness may lose congregation privileges following a single credible accusation of abuse,[270] Jehovah's Witnesses claim to be scripturally obliged to require corroboration ("two witnesses") before applying their severest forms of congregational discipline.[271] If there is not an actual second witness to an incident of abuse, a congregation judicial committee will accept medical or police reports, or a witness to a separate but similar incident as such a second witness against a member accused of sexual abuse.[272]
Biblical criticisms[edit source]
The Watch Tower Society has been criticized for its refusal to reveal the names and academic credentials of the translators of its New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT).[273] The Society has claimed members of the NWT's translation committee wished to remain anonymous in order to exalt only the name of God,[274] The Watchtower stating that the educational qualifications of the translators were unimportant and that "the translation itself testifies to their qualifications".[275] Raymond Franz, a former member of the Governing Body, has claimed that of the four men he says constituted the committee, only one—its principal translator, his uncle Frederick Franz—had sufficient knowledge of biblical languages to have attempted the project.[276] Frederick Franz had studied Greek for two years and was self-taught in Hebrew.[277]
Much criticism of the NWT involves the rendering of certain texts considered to be biased towards specific Witness practices and doctrines.[273][278][279][280][281][282] These include the use of "torture stake" instead of "cross" throughout the New Testament;[273] the rendering of John 1:1, with the insertion of the indefinite article ("a") in its rendering to give "the Word was a god";[273][283] Romans 10:10, which uses the term "public declaration", which may reinforce the imperative to engage in public preaching;[273] John 17:3, which uses the term "taking in knowledge" rather than "know" to suggest that salvation is dependent on ongoing study,[273] and the placement of the comma in Luke 23:43, which affects the timing of the fulfillment of Jesus' promise to the thief at Calvary.[284]
Also criticized is the NWT's insertion of the name Jehovah 237 times in the New Testament without extant New Testament Greek manuscript evidence that the name existed there.[285][286][287] Watch Tower publications have claimed that the name was "restored" on a sound basis, stating that when New Testament writers quote earlier Old Testament scriptures containing the Tetragrammaton (יהוה), "the translator has the right to render Kyrios ("LORD") as Jehovah."[288] The NWT mentions twenty-seven other translations which have similarly rendered Kyrios as a form of the name Jehovah, stating that there is only one verse where the NWT does so without agreement from other translations.[289]
The Society has claimed its translation "courageously restores God’s name, Jehovah, to its proper place in the Biblical text, is free from the bias of religious traditionalism, and ... gives the literal meaning of God’s Word as accurately as possible."[290] Jason BeDuhn, associate professor of religious studies at Northern Arizona University, in Flagstaff, Arizona, compared major translations for accuracy. He wrote that the NWT's introduction of the name "Jehovah" into the New Testament 237 times was "not accurate translation by the most basic principle of accuracy".[291] BeDuhn also stated that whilst there are "a handful of examples of bias in the [New World Translation (NW)]", that "most of the differences are due to the greater accuracy of the NW as a literal, conservative translation of the original expressions of the New Testament writers." He concluded that "the NW and [another translation] are not bias free, and they are not perfect translations. But they are remarkably good translations ... often better than [the other six translations analyzed]."[292]
See also[edit source]
Anti-cult movement
Beth Sarim
History of Jehovah's Witnesses
References[edit source]
1.^ Crompton, Robert (1996), Counting the Days to Armageddon, Cambridge: James Clarke & Co, pp. 9, 115, ISBN 0-227-67939-3
2.^ The Time is at Hand, Watch Tower Society, 1889, pages 98-99, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 193.
3.^ In 1892 the Watch Tower asserted that God's battle, Armageddon, which was believed to be already under way, would end in October 1914, a date "definitely marked in Scripture," (15 January 1892, page 1355) and Watch Tower editor Charles Taze Russell declared: "We see no reason for changing the figures—nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe, God's dates, not ours." (The Watchtower, 15 July 1894, page 1677). Christ's thousand-year reign was predicted to begin "probably the fall" of 1925, based on other dates upon which God had placed "the stamp of his seal ... beyond any possibility of erasure". (The Watch Tower, May 15, 1922, p. 150, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 224).
4.^ a b "Following Faithful Shepherds with Life in View", The Watchtower, October 1, 1967, page 591, "Make haste to identify the visible theocratic organization of God that represents his king, Jesus Christ. It is essential for life. Doing so, be complete in accepting its every aspect ... in submitting to Jehovah's visible theocratic organization, we must be in full and complete agreement with every feature of its apostolic procedure and requirements."
5.^ "The Godly Qualities of Love and Hate", The Watchtower, 15 July 1974: 441, "Christians have implicit trust in their heavenly Father; they do not question what he tells them through his written Word and organization."
6.^ a b Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 174, "No less serious is it when a group of men have divided views on predictions related to a certain date and yet present their adherents an outward appearance of united confidence, encouraging those adherents to place unwavering trust in those predictions."
7.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom, Atlanta: Commentary Press, pp. 18–28, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
8.^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984), The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, University of Toronto Press, pp. 66–69, ISBN 0-8020-6545-7
9.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, Watch Tower Society, 1959, page 52.
10.^ "A Solid Basis for Confidence", The Watchtower, July 15, 1976, page 440.
11.^ Gruss, Edmond C. (1972), The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Speculation, Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co, pp. 87–88, ISBN 0-87552-306-4
12.^ In Crisis of Conscience, 2002, pg. 173, Franz quotes from "They Shall Know That a Prophet Was Among Them", (The Watchtower, April 1, 1972,) which states that God had raised Jehovah's Witnesses as a prophet "to warn (people) of dangers and declare things to come" He also cites "Identifying the Right Kind of Messenger" (The Watchtower, May 1, 1997, page 8) which identifies the Witnesses as his "true messengers ... by making the messages he delivers through them come true", in contrast to "false messengers", whose predictions fail. In In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, he quotes The Nations Shall Know That I Am Jehovah - How? (1971, pg 70, 292) which describes Witnesses as the modern Ezekiel class, "a genuine prophet within our generation". The Watch Tower book noted: "Concerning the message faithfully delivered by the Ezekiel class, Jehovah positively states that it 'must come true' ... those who wait undecided until it does 'come true' will also have to know that a prophet himself had proved to be in the midst of them." He also cites "Execution of the Great Harlot Nears", (The Watchtower, October 15, 1980, pg 17) which claims God gives the Witnesses "special knowledge that others do not have ... advance knowledge about this system's end".
13.^ James A. Beverley, Crisis of Allegiance, Welch Publishing Company, Burlington, Ontario, 1986, ISBN 0-920413-37-4, pages 86-91.
14.^ Criticisms of statements, such as those found below, are found in a number of books including Penton, M. James (1997) Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press; Franz, Raymond, In Search of Christian Freedom (2007) Commentary Press; Watters, Randall (2004) Thus Saith Jehovah's Witnesses, Common Sense Publications; Reed, David A. (1990) Index of Watchtower Errors, 1879 to 1989, Baker Books and at websites including Watchtower Information Service; Quotes-Watchtower.co.uk; Reexamine.Quotes.
15.^ Waldeck, Val Jehovah's Witnesses: What do they believe?. Pilgrim Publications SA. ISBN 1-920092-08-0.
16.^ Buttrey, John M (2004). Let No One Mislead You. iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-30710-8.
17.^ Awake!, October 8, 1968, p. 23.
18.^ James A. Beverley, Crisis of Allegiance, Welch Publishing Company, Burlington, Ontario, 1986, ISBN 0-920413-37-4, page 87.
19.^ a b "Why So Many False Alarms?", Awake!, March 22, 1993, pages 3-4, footnote.
20.^ Reasoning From the Scriptures, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1989, pg 137.
21.^ Revelation - Its Grand Climax, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1988, page 9.
22.^ "Views From the Watchtower", Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, January 1908, "We are not prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises ... We do not even [assert] that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophesy and our calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you, leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to them."
23.^ "Preaching Christ—Through Envy or Goodwill?", The Watchtower, May 15, 1976, p. 297, "Jehovah’s Witnesses as modern-day Christians are working hard to get this good news preached to every individual. They do not claim infallibility or perfection. Neither are they inspired prophets."
24.^ "Allow No Place for the Devil!", The Watchtower, March 15, 1986, page 19, "Some opposers claim that Jehovah’s Witnesses are false prophets. These opponents say that dates have been set, but nothing has happened. ... Yes, Jehovah’s people have had to revise expectations from time to time. Because of our eagerness, we have hoped for the new system earlier than Jehovah’s timetable has called for it. But we display our faith in God’s Word and its sure promises by declaring its message to others. Moreover, the need to revise our understanding somewhat does not make us false prophets or change the fact that we are living in 'the last days,' ... How foolish to take the view that expectations needing some adjustment should call into question the whole body of truth! The evidence is clear that Jehovah has used and is continuing to use his one organization."
25.^ George Chryssides, They Keep Changing the Dates, A paper presented at the CESNUR 2010 conference in Torino. How Prophecy Succeeds:The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Expectations
26.^ Charles Taze Russell and Nelson H. Barbour, The Three Worlds (1907) as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, pages 21-22.
27.^ Charles Taze Russell, The Time Is At Hand (1891) as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 44.
28.^ Melvin D. Curry, Jehovah's Witnesses: The Millenarian World of the Watch Tower, Garland, 1992, as cited by James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 45.
29.^ Penton, James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 46. ISBN 978-0802079732.
30.^ The Finished Mystery, 1917, p. 485, 258, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 206-211.
31.^ J. F. Rutherford, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, 1920, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 212-214.
32.^ Watch Tower, May 15, 1922, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 224.
33.^ The Way to Paradise booklet, Watch Tower Society, 1924, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 230-232.
34.^ Face the Facts, 1938, pp. 46-50
35.^ The Watchtower, September 15, 1941, p. 288
36.^ The Watchtower, May 1, 1942, p. 139
37.^ Life Everlasting in Freedom of the Sons of God, Watch Tower Society, 1966, pp. 29–35, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 238-239.
38.^ Talk by F. W. Franz, Baltimore, Maryland 1966, cited by Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, and by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 238-239.
39.^ Did Man Get Here By Evolution Or By Creation?, Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, 1967, pg 161.
40.^ The Watchtower, May 1, 1968, page 273
41.^ Kingdom Ministry, Watch Tower Society, March 1968, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 246.
42.^ Awake!, May 22, 1969, p. 15
43.^ The Nations Shall Know That I Am Jehovah – How?, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1971, pg 216.
44.^ Kingdom Ministry, Watch Tower Society, May 1974, page 3.
45.^ The Watchtower, March 1, 1984, pp. 18-19
46.^ The Watchtower, January 1, 1989, pg. 12.
47.^ "Flashes of Light - Great and Small", The Watchtower, May 15, 1995, page 17.
48.^ a b c Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 184.
49.^ The Watchtower, July 15, 1894: 1677, "We see no reason for changing the figures—nor could we change them if we would. They are, we believe, God’s dates, not ours. But bear in mind that the end of 1914 is not the date for the beginning, but for the end of the time of trouble."
50.^ The Watchtower, September 15, 1901: 292, "The culmination of the trouble in October, 1914, is clearly marked in the Scriptures;"
51.^ The Time Is at Hand, 1907, p. 101, "The ‘battle of the great day of God Almighty’ (Rev. 16:14), which will end in A.D. 1914 with the complete overthrow of earth’s present rulership, is already commenced."
52.^ The Watchtower, November 1, 1922: 346, "We understand that the jubilee type began to count in 1575 B.C.; and the 3,500 year period embracing the type must end in 1925. It follows, then, that the year 1925 will mark the beginning of the restoration of all things lost by Adam's disobedience."
53.^ The Watchtower, November 1, 1922: 333, "Bible prophecy shows that the Lord was due to appear for the second time in 1874. Fulfilled prophecy shows beyond a doubt that he did appear in 1874 ... these facts are indisputable."
54.^ Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 708.
55.^ "Impart God’s Progressive Revelation to Mankind", The Watchtower, March 1, 1965, p. 158-159
56.^ Studies in the Scriptures Vol. II 1889 p. 239, Studies in the Scriptures Volume III 1891 p. 234, Studies in Scriptures Vol. IV 1897 p. 621.
57.^ Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 632.
58.^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, pages 20, 23.
59.^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 23.
60.^ Watchtower, February 1, 1925, page 371.
61.^ Watchtower, May 15, 1927, page 151.
62.^ Watchtower, June 1, 1927.
63.^ "The Corroborative Testimony of God's Stone Witness and Prophet, The Great Pyramid in Egypt", Chapter 10, Thy Kingdom Come, third volume of Studies in the Scriptures, 1910.
64.^ Watchtower, June 15, 1922, page 187, as reproduced by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 225, 226.
65.^ Watchtower, 1928, pages 339-45, 355-62, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 170.
66.^ Watch Tower, October–November 1881, as cited by Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 142.
67.^ The Battle of Armageddon by C. T. Russell, 1886, page 613, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, footnote, page 345.
68.^ Watch Tower, December 1, 1916, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 34.
69.^ Watch Tower, March 1, 1923, pages 68 and 71, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 63.
70.^ Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 626, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 67.
71.^ Watch Tower, October 1, 1909, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 67.
72.^ Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Society, 1993, page 626.
73.^ Thy Kingdom Come, 1891, page 23.
74.^ The Harp of God, (1921), 1924 ed., p. 231.
75.^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, pages 21, 46.
76.^ C.T. Russell, The Time Is At Hand (Watch Tower Society, 1889, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 190, 204.
77.^ Life, Watch Tower Society, 1929, page 170, as cited by Edmond C. Gruss, The Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Speculation, Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co, 1972, page 87.
78.^ J.F. Rutherford, Vindication - Book II, pages 257-258, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, page 65.
79.^ Watch Tower, November 1, 1922, page 333, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 228.
80.^ The Watchtower, March 1, 1922, "The indisputable facts, therefore, show that the time of the end began in 1799; that the Lord's second presence began in 1874".
81.^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, pages 18-22.
82.^ "No Spiritual Energy Crisis for Discreet Ones", The Watchtower, August 15, 1974, page 507, footnote.
83.^ a b Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, page 484.
84.^ The Watchtower, June 15, 1952, page 376.
85.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, p. 107, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
86.^ Qualified To Be Ministers, Watch Tower Society, 1955, page 381, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 74.
87.^ Marley Cole, Jehovah's Witnesses - The New World Society, Vantage Press, New York, 1955, pages 86-89, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 74.
88.^ Testimony by Fred Franz, Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh Transcript, Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh, 1954, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 75-76.
89.^ Watch Tower, March 1, 1923, page 68, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 59.
90.^ Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, pages 58-79.
91.^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, 1997, page 216.
92.^ The Watchtower, December 15, 1971, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, 2007, page 78.
93.^ The Watchtower, July 1, 1963, page 412.
94.^ The Watchtower, July 15, 1963, page 443.
95.^ "Maintaining a Balanced Viewpoint Toward Disfellowshiped Ones", The Watchtower, August 1, 1974, pages 467, "It is right to hate the wrong committed by the disfellowshiped one, but it is not right to hate the person nor is it right to treat such ones in an inhumane way."
96.^ "Maintaining a Balanced Viewpoint Toward Disfellowshiped Ones", The Watchtower, August 1, 1974, pages 471-472.
97.^ "Maintaining a Balanced Viewpoint Toward Disfellowshiped Ones", The Watchtower, August 1, 1974, page 471, par 19.
98.^ a b "If a Relative Is Disfellowshiped", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, page 28.
99.^ "Disfellowshiping—How to View It", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, pages 24-25.
100.^ "If a Relative Is Disfellowshiped", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, page 30.
101.^ The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, pages 20-31, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 299-300.
102.^ Letter to all circuit and district overseers from Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of New York, September 1, 1980, as reproduced by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 341.
103.^ "Disfellowshiping—How to View It", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, pages 23, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, page 299-300.
104.^ Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 357-359.
105.^ Watch Tower, June 15, 1911, as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, page 188.
106.^ The Finished Mystery, 1917, p. 485, 258, 513 as cited by Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, pages 206-211.
107.^ Revelation - It's Grand Climax at Hand!, Watch Tower Society, 1988, page 209.
108.^ Revelation - It's Grand Climax at Hand!, Watch Tower Society, 1988, pages 266, 269.
109.^ "No Calamity Will Befall Us" (Subheading). (Nov. 15, 2001). The Watchtower, p.19
110.^ "Let the Reader Use Discernment", (Subheading "A Modern-Day 'Disgusting Thing'"). (May 1, 1999). The Watchtower, p 14
111.^ "A World Without War-When?" Oct.1, 1991, pp.5 The Watchtower
112.^ The Watchtower, 1 June 1997, p. 17 par. 15: "In the first place, what lies ahead for the world's false religions that have so often been extremely friendly with the UN? They are the offspring of one idolatrous fountainhead, ancient Babylon. Appropriately, they are described at Revelation 17:5 as "Babylon the Great, the mother of the harlots and of the disgusting things of the earth". Jeremiah described the doom of this hypocritical conglomerate. Harlotlike, they have seduced earth's politicians, flattering the UN and forming illicit relations with its member political powers."
113.^ Bates, Stephen (Oct. 8, 2001) "Jehovah's Witnesses link to UN queried", The Guardian
114.^ Bates, Stephen (Oct. 15, 2001) "'Hypocrite' Jehovah's Witnesses abandon secret link with UN", The Guardian
115.^ Letter to Editor - The Guardian" (Oct. 22, 2001) Office of Public Information
116.^ Letter from United Nations DPI/NGO Resource Centre
117.^ UN DPI/NGO
118.^ Pay Attention to Daniel's Prophecy! chap. 6 par. 25-29
119.^ a b Edmond C. Gruss, Jehovah's Witnesses and Prophetic Speculation, Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Co, 1972, ISBN 0-87552-306-4 Page 42.
120.^ a b "When Was Ancient Jerusalem Destroyed?—Part One" The Watchtower, October 1, 2011, page 26
121.^ "Evidences of the Year’s Correctness". The Watchtower: 271–2. May 1, 1952. "It was in this first regnal year of Cyrus that he issued his decree to permit the Jews to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the temple. (Ezra 1:1) The decree may have been made in late 538 B.C. or before March 4-5, 537 B.C. In either case this would have given sufficient time for the large party of 49,897 Jews to organize their expedition and to make their long four-month journey from Babylon to Jerusalem to get there by September 29-30, 537 B.C., the first of the seventh Jewish month, to build their altar to Jehovah as recorded at Ezra 3:1-3. Inasmuch as September 29-30, 537 B.C., officially ends the seventy years of desolation as recorded at 2 Chronicles 36:20, 21, so the beginning of the desolation of the land must have officially begun to be counted after September 21-22, 607 B.C., the first of the seventh Jewish month in 607 B.C., which is the beginning point for the counting of the 2,520 years."
122.^ [1] "Babylonian Exile." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2010.
123.^ "Timeline of Judaism after the Babylonian Exile (538 BCE-70 CE)". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 2012-10-27.
124.^ Keller, Werner (1983). The Bible As History. Bantam; 2 Revised edition. p. 352. ISBN 0-553-27943-2.
125.^ Dictionary of the Bible: Biographical, Geographical, Historical and Doctrinal by Charles Randall Barnes, Page 247.
126.^ Dyer, Charles (2003). Nelson’s Old Testament survey: Discovering essence, Background & Meaning about Every Old Testament book.
127.^ The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return by Carl O. Jonsson. ISBN 0-914675-06-0 Publisher: Commentary Press (July, 1998, Fourth edition 2004)
128.^ "When Was Ancient Jerusalem Destroyed?—Part Two" The Watchtower, November 1, 2011, page 22
129.^ Insight from scriptures. Vol.2 page 458, "secular chronologers calculate the 16th day of Tashritu (Tishri) as falling on October 11, Julian calendar, and October 5, Gregorian calendar, in the year 539 B.C.E. Since this date is an accepted one, there being no evidence to the contrary, it is usable as a pivotal date in coordinating secular history with Bible history."
130.^ Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Persian Chronology Compared with the Chronology of the Bible, Volume 1: Persian Chronology and the Length of the Babylonian Exile of the Jews (2003) ISBN 82-994633-3-5
131.^ Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 28:5 [2004], p. 42-43
132.^ Under One Sky: Astronomy and Mathematics in the Ancient Near East, Münster 2002, pp. 423-428, F. R. Stephenson and D. M. Willis.
133.^ a b "When Was Ancient Jerusalem Destroyed?—Part Two" The Watchtower, November 1, 2011, page 25, 28, footnote 18
134.^ Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy–Astrology, David Brown, pages 53–56; 2000
135.^ When Was Ancient Jerusalem Destroyed, page 21, Carl O. Jonsson.
136.^ Insight from scriptures, Vol. I, Astronomical Calculations, page 454
137.^ Evolution Versus The New World, Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, 1950
138.^ Did Man Get Here By Evolution Or By Creation?, Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, 1967
139.^ Life — How Did It Get Here? By Evolution Or By Creation?, Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, 1985
140.^ Was Life Created?, Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, 2010
141.^ The Origin of Life — Five Questions Worth Asking, Watchtower Bible & Tract Society, 2010
142.^ Gary Botting, "Preface" to The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, pp. xiv-xvi
143.^ Hitching is first introduced as an "evolutionist" (p. 15). A Hitching quote on page 71 is repeated on page 73, in the latter case presented as the statement of "a scientist". The 1986 Watchtower book The Bible — God's Word or Man's? likewise refers to Hitching as a scientist (p. 106).
144.^ Richard Dawkins: The God Delusion, p. 145. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 2006. ISBN 0-618-68000-4.
145.^ The Watchtower, April 1, 1986, pp. 12-13
146.^ Awake!, May 8, 1997, p. 12
147.^ The Watchtower, September 1, 1986, p. 30
148.^ "Loyal to Christ and His Faithful Slave", The Watchtower, April 1, 2007, page 24, "When we loyally submit to the direction of the faithful slave and its Governing Body, we are submitting to Christ, the slave's Master."
149.^ Beckford, James A. (1975), The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, pp. 89, 95, 103, 120, 204, 221, ISBN 0-631-16310-7
150.^ Holden, Andrew (2002), Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement, Routledge, pp. 22, 32, 150–170, ISBN 0-415-26609-2
151.^ Alan Rogerson, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, Constable, 1969, page 50.
152.^ a b Osamu Muramoto, "Bioethics of the refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses, part 1", Journal of Medical Ethics, August 1998, Vol 24, Issue 4, page 223-230.
153.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom (2nd ed.), Commentary Press, pp. 98–100, 104–107, 113, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
154.^ a b c d R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 6.
155.^ Court transcript as cited by Heather & Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1984, page 67-68, also at Pursuer's Proof: Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh Transcript, Lord Strachan vs. Douglas Walsh, 1954.
156.^ Beckford, James A. (1975), The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, p. 103, ISBN 0-631-16310-7
157.^ Minority Religions, Social Change, and Freedom of Conscience
158.^ Holden, Andrew (2002), Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement, Routledge, p. 67, ISBN 0-415-26609-2
159.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom (2nd ed.), Commentary Press, pp. 419–421, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
160.^ Stevenson, W.C. (1967), Year of Doom 1975: The Inside Story of Jehovah's Witnesses, London: Hutchinson & Co, pp. 33–35, "The inevitable result of a person's submitting to (the home Bible study) arrangement is that eventually all his own thoughts will be replaced by the thoughts contained in the book he is studying ... if one were able to watch this person's development ... it would be quite obvious that he was gradually losing all individuality of thought and action ... One of the characteristics of Jehovah's Witnesses is the extraordinary unanimity of thinking on almost every aspect of life ... in view of this there seems to be some justification for the charge that their study methods are in fact a subtle form of indoctrination or brainwashing."
161.^ a b c Botting, Heather & Gary (1984), The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, University of Toronto Press, p. 153, ISBN 0-8020-6545-7
162.^ a b R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 16.
163.^ "Exposing the Devil’s Subtle Designs" and "Armed for the Fight Against Wicked Spirits", Watchtower, January 15, 1983, as cited by Heather and Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1984, page 92.
164.^ "Serving Jehovah Shoulder to Shoulder", The Watchtower, August 15, 1981, page 28, "Jehovah's Theocratic Organization Today", The Watchtower, February 1, 1952, pages 79–81.
165.^ James A. Beverley, Crisis of Allegiance, Welch Publishing Company, Burlington, Ontario, 1986, ISBN 0-920413-37-4, pages 25-26, 101, "For every passage in Society literature that urges members to be bold and courageous in critical pursuits, there are many others that warn about independent thinking and the peril of questioning the organization ... Fear of disobedience to the Governing Body keeps Jehovah's Witnesses from carefully checking into biblical doctrine or allegations concerning false prophecy, faulty scholarship, and injustice. Witnesses are told not to read books like this one."
166.^ According to Randall Watters, who in 1981 published a pamphlet, "What happened at the world headquarters of Jehovah's Witnesses in the spring of 1980?", cited by Heather and Gary Botting, a former Governing Body member is said to have referred Brooklyn headquarters staff to an organizational handbook containing 1,177 policies and regulations, telling them: "If there are some who feel that they cannot subject themselves to the rules and regulations now in operation, such ones ought to be leaving and not be involved here."
167.^ Penton, M. J. (1997), Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.), University of Toronto Press, pp. 107–108, 122, 298.
168.^ "Walk With Confidence in Jehovah’s Leadership", The Watchtower, June 1, 1985, page 20, "To turn away from Jehovah and his organization, to spurn the direction of “the faithful and discreet slave,” and to rely simply on personal Bible reading and interpretation is to become like a solitary tree in a parched land."
169.^ Question box, Our Kingdom Ministry, September 2007.
170.^ "Do not be quickly shaken from your reason", Watchtower, March 15, 1986
171.^ "At which table are you feeding?" Watchtower, July 1, 1994
172.^ Watchtower, May 1, 1984, page 31, as cited by R. Franz, "In Search of Christian Freedom", chapter 12
173.^ "Firmly uphold godly teaching," Watchtower, May 1, 2000, page 9.
174.^ Heather & Gary Botting, The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, University of Toronto Press, 1984, page 143, 153.
175.^ Beckford, James A. (1975), The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, pp. 204, 221, ISBN 0-631-16310-7
176.^ Holden, Andrew (2002), Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement, Routledge, p. 30, ISBN 0-415-26609-2
177.^ R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 11.
178.^ Muramoto, O. (January 6, 2001), "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses", BMJ 322 (7277): 37–39, doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37, PMC 1119307, PMID 11141155.
179.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom (2nd ed.), Commentary Press, pp. 449–464, ISBN 0-914675-17-6, "Loyalty to the organization becomes the touchstone, the criterion, the "bottom line", when it comes to determining whether one is a faithful Christian or not ... to make any organizational loyalty the criterion for judging anyone's Christianity is, then, clearly a perversion of Scripture ... Read the whole of those Scriptures ... nowhere are we taught to put faith in men or in an earthly organization, unquestioningly following its lead ... the entire Bible record is a continual reminder of the danger inherent in that kind of trust."
180.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom (2nd ed.), Commentary Press, p. 458, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
181.^ "You Must Be Holy Because Jehovah Is Holy", The Watchtower, February 15, 1976, page 124, "Would not a failure to respond to direction from God through his organization really indicate a rejection of divine rulership?"
182.^ James A. Beverley, Crisis of Allegiance, Welch Publishing Company, Burlington, Ontario, 1986, ISBN 0-920413-37-4, pages 25-26, 101.
183.^ Holden 2002, p. 121.
184.^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984), The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, University of Toronto Press, p. 156, ISBN 0-8020-6545-7
185.^ "Questions from readers", Watchtower, April 1, 1986.
186.^ Stark and Iannoccone (1997), "Why the Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application" (PDF), Journal of Contemporary Religion, pp. 142–143, retrieved 2008-12-30.
187.^ ECHR Point 130, 118
188.^ Gary Botting, Fundamental Freedoms and Jehovah's Witnesses, (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1993.
189.^ Rhodes, Ron (2001), The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, pp. 77–103, ISBN 0-310-23217-1
190.^ Gomes, Alan W. (1995), Unmasking the Cults, Zondervan, pp. 22, 23, ISBN 0-310-70441-3
191.^ Hoekema, Anthony A. (1963), The Four Major Cults, Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans, pp. 1–8,223–371, 373–388, ISBN 0-8028-3117-6
192.^ "Are Jehovah’s Witnesses a Cult?", The Watchtower, February 15, 1994, pages 5-7
193.^ "Do Others Do Your Thinking?", Awake!, August 22, 1978, page 4.
194.^ "Who Molds Your Thinking?", The Watchtower, April 1, 1999, page 22, "You have free will. Exercising it, you can choose to respond to Jehovah’s molding influence or deliberately reject it. How much better to listen to Jehovah’s voice instead of arrogantly asserting, 'No one tells me what to do'!"
195.^ "Salvation", Reasoning on the Scriptures, Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, p. 359, "Is anything more than faith needed in order to gain salvation? Eph. 2:8, 9, RS: “By grace [“undeserved kindness,” NW] you have been saved through faith; and this is not your own doing, it is the gift of God—not because of works, lest any man should boast.” (The entire provision for salvation is an expression of God’s undeserved kindness. There is no way that a descendant of Adam can gain salvation on his own, no matter how noble his works are. Salvation is a gift from God given to those who put faith in the sin-atoning value of the sacrifice of his Son.)"
196.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses Wish You Would Answer The Door" (PDF). 2006. Text " The Grand Rapids Press" ignored (help)
197.^ Brown II, John Bowen (2008-04-16), "Cult Watchdog Organizations and Jehovah’s Witnesses", Twenty Years and More: Research into Minority Religions, New Religious Movements and 'the New Spirituality', London School of Economics, London, UK: Center for Studies on New Religions, retrieved 2010-03-03
198.^ Engardio, Joel P. (2007-04-17). "Myths & Realities". PBS Independent Lens. Public Broadcasting Service. Retrieved 2010-03-03.
199.^ Brown II, John B. (2005-06-02), "Jehovah's Witnesses and the Anti-cult Movement: A Human Rights Perspective", Religious Movements, Globalization and Conflict: Transnational Perspectives, Palermo, Sicily: Center for Studies on New Religions
200.^ Raschke, Carl A. (2013-07-19), "Contemporary American Religion Volume 1", in Catherine L. Albanese, Randall Balmer, Frederick M. Denny, Cheryl Townsend Gilkes, Ana Maria Diaz-Stevens, Anthony M. Stevens-Arroyo, Ellen M. Umansky, Jehovah's Witnesses, New York: Macmillan Reference USA An Imprint of the Gale Group, p. 343, ISBN 0-02-864926-5
201.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, page 96, as cited by R. Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, chapter 4.
202.^ Question Box, Our Kingdom Ministry, September 1979, page 4.
203.^ "Do You Contribute to an Accurate Report?", Our Kingdom Ministry, December 2002, page 8.
204.^ "Righteous requirements", Watchtower, July 1, 1943, pages 204-206, "Jehovah ... has appointed his 'faithful and wise servant, who is his visible mouthpiece ... These expressions of God's will by his King and through his established agency constitute his law or rule of action ... The Lord breaks down our organization instructions further ... He says the requirements for special pioneers shall be 175 hours and 50 back-calls per month ... and for regular pioneers 150 hours ... And for company publishers he says, 'Let us make a quota of 60 hours and 12 back-calls and at least one study a week for each publisher'. These directions come to us from the Lord through his established agency directing what is required of us ... This expression of the Lord's will should be the end of all controversy ... The Lord through his 'faithful and wise servant' now states to us, Let us cover our territory four times in six months. That becomes our organization instructions and has the same binding force on us that his statement to the Logos had when he said, 'Let us make man in our image'. It is our duty to accept this additional instruction and obey it."
205.^ "Saved, Not by Works Alone, But by Undeserved Kindness", The Watchtower, June 1, 2005, pages 17-18.
206.^ Expert Opinion by S. I. Ivanenko, p. 10, Golovinsky Intermunicipal Court, in the application of the Moscow Northern Administrative District prosecutor to liquidate the Religious Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses in Moscow
207.^ The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses, John Wiley and Sons, 1975, as cited by M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, 1997. Penton describes Beckford's book as "uneven" and marred by errors and a misunderstanding of certain basic Witness doctrines.
208.^ Sworn Expert Opinion, prepared by Professor James Beckford, University of Warwick, Coventry, England, November 1998, Golovinsky Intermunicipal Court, in the application of the Moscow Northern Administrative District prosecutor to liquidate the Religious Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses in Moscow
209.^ ECHR Point number 111
210.^ “Jehovah's Witnesses case heads to B.C. court”, Vancouver Sun, April 1, 2007
211.^ Medical emergencies in children of orthodox Jehovah's Witness families: Three recent legal cases, ethical issues and proposals for management”, by J Guicho and, I Mitchell, Paediatrics & Child Health, Canadian Pediatric Society, December 2006.
212.^ "Bioethics of the refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses, part 2." Journal of Medical Ethics, October 1998, pages 295-301.
213.^ ECHR Point number 136, 139
214.^ a b "Always Acccept Jehovah’s Discipline", The Watchtower, November 15, 2006, page 26.
215.^ "Cultivate Obedience as the End Draws Near", The Watchtower, October 1, 2002, page 21
216.^ Beckford, James A. (1975), The Trumpet of Prophecy, A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, p. 55, ISBN 0-631-16310-7
217.^ "Elders, Judge With Righteousness", The Watchtower, July 1, 1992, page 19.
218.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, p. 354, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
219.^ a b Penton, M. J. (1997), Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.), University of Toronto Press, p. 89
220.^ a b c Holden, Andrew (2002), Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement, Routledge, p. 163, ISBN 0-415-26609-2
221.^ Osamu Muramoto, "Recent developments in medical care of Jehovah's Witnesses", Western Journal of Medicine, May 1999, page 298.
222.^ Taylor, Jerome (27 September 2011). "War of words breaks out among Jehovah's Witnesses". The Independent.
223.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses church likens defectors to 'contagious, deadly disease'", Sunday Herald Sun, page 39, October 2, 2011.
224.^ Holden, Andrew (2002), Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement, Routledge, p. 150, ISBN 0-415-26609-2
225.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, p. 384, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
226.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, p. 351, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
227.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, p. 359, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
228.^ Holden, Andrew (2002), Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement, Routledge, p. 151, ISBN 0-415-26609-2
229.^ a b c Penton, M. J. (1997), Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.), University of Toronto Press, p. 249
230.^ Ronald Lawson, "Sect-State Relations: Accounting for the Differing Trajectories of Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses," Sociology of Religion, 1995, 56:4, pg 371.
231.^ "Maintain Your Faith and Spiritual Health", The Watchtower, October 1, 1989.
232.^ "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, October 15, 1986, page 31.
233.^ Osamu Muramoto, "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses", British Medical Journal, January 6, 2001, page 37.
234.^ Donald T. Ridley, "Jehovah's Witnesses' refusal of blood: Obedience to scripture and religious conscience", Journal of Medical Ethics, 1999:25, page 470.
235.^ a b Franz, Raymond (2002), Crisis of Conscience, Commentary Press, p. 38, ISBN 0-914675-23-0
236.^ a b Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984), The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, University of Toronto Press, p. 91, ISBN 0-8020-6545-7
237.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, p. 371, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
238.^ Penton, M. J. (1997), Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.), University of Toronto Press, p. 248
239.^ Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, pages 365-385, citing "A Time to Speak – When?", The Watchtower, September 1, 1987.
240.^ Osamu Muramoto, "Bioethics of the refusal of blood by Jehovah’s Witnesses, Part 1", Journal of Medical Ethics, August 1998.
241.^ "Disfellowshiping—How to View It", The Watchtower, September 15, 1981, page 23.
242.^ Penton, M. J. (1997), Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.), University of Toronto Press, p. 319
243.^ Franz, Raymond (2002), Crisis of Conscience, Commentary Press, p. 357, ISBN 0-914675-23-0
244.^ "How Can Blood Save Your Life?" (1990). Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania
245.^ "Be guided by the Living God" (Jun. 15, 2004). The Watchtower
246.^ "Questions from readers: Do Jehovah's Witnesses accept any minor fractions of blood?" (Jun. 15, 2000). The Watchtower
247.^ Awake! August 2006 box on P. 11
248.^ Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood
249.^ The Watchtower November 1, 1961, p. 669 Questions From Readers
250.^ What Does The Bible Really Teach? 2005 P.128
251.^ "OK Kosher Certification — Salting of Meat". Ok.org. Retrieved 2012-10-27.
252.^ "Making Meat Kosher: Between Slaughtering and Cooking". My Jewish Learning. Retrieved 2012-10-27.
253.^ "Religion Today", New York Times, January 6, 2006
254.^ Jehovah's Witnesses, Blood Transfusions and the Tort of Misrepresentation, Journal of Church and State Vol 47, Autumn 2005 p. 815
255.^ Franz, Raymond. "In Search of Christian Freedom" - Chapter Nine. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 1991. ISBN 0-914675-16-8. p.732.
256.^ "Questions From Readers", The Watchtower, October 15, 2000, page 31, "Jehovah’s Witnesses...do not donate blood [without preconditions on its use], nor do we store for transfusion our blood that should be ‘poured out.’ That practice conflicts with God’s law. Other procedures or tests involving an individual’s own blood are not so clearly in conflict with God’s stated principles. ...the goal may be to isolate some of a blood component and apply that elsewhere... A Christian must decide for himself how his own blood will be handled... Ahead of time, he should obtain from the doctor or technician the facts about what might be done with his blood during the procedure. Then he must decide according to what his conscience permits."
257.^ "How Do I View Blood Fractions and Medical Procedures Involving My Own Blood?", Our Kingdom Ministry, November 2006, page 4.
258.^ Franz, Raymond. "In Search of Christian Freedom" - Chapter Nine. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 1991. Pbk. ISBN 0-914675-16-8. pp.732.
259.^ Ivanhoe's Medical Breakthroughs - When Religion and Medicine Collide
260.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses: Watchtower Society Official Web Site". Watchtower.org. Retrieved 2012-10-27.
261.^ Jehovah's Witnesses, Blood Transfusions and the Tort of Misrepresentation, Journal of Church and State Vol 47, Autumn 2005
262.^ The Watchtower (Feb. 1, 1997) p30
263.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses (WTS) Handling of Child Sexual Abuse Cases", Religious Tolerance.org Retrieved Mar 3, 2006.
264.^ Tubbs, Sharon (Aug. 22, 2002), "Spiritual shunning", St. Petersburg Times.
265.^ "Another Church Sex Scandal" (Apr. 29, 2003). CBS News.
266.^ Cutrer, Corrie (Mar. 5, 2001). "Witness Leaders Accused of Shielding Molesters", Christianity Today.
267.^ Channel 9 Sunday, November 2005.
268.^ "Secret database protects paedophiles", BBC Panorama, 2003.
269.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses and Child Protection" (2003). Jehovah's Witnesses Office of Public Information.
270.^ “Let All Things Take Place for Upbuilding”, Our Kingdom Ministry, July 2000, page 1
271.^ "Comfort for Those With a “Stricken Spirit”", The Watchtower, November 1, 1995, page 28, online, "If the [lone] accusation is denied [by the accused], the elders should explain to the accuser that nothing more can be done in a judicial way. ...The Bible says that there must be two or three witnesses before judicial action can be taken. (2 Corinthians 13:1; 1 Timothy 5:19)"
272.^ Jehovah's Witnesses Office of Public Information, Press Release "Jehovah's Witnesses and Child Protection," 2003.
273.^ a b c d e f Penton, M. J. (1997), Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.), University of Toronto Press, pp. 174–176
274.^ "New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures", The Watchtower, September 15, 1950, page 320.
275.^ Questions from readers, The Watchtower, December 15, 1974, page 767.
276.^ In a 1954 court case, Franz was invited to translate a passage of Genesis from English to Hebrew. (Translator's proof, page 102-103). He declined, saying he would not attempt it. Heather and Gary Botting wrongly claim (page 98) he could make no sense of "an elementary passage of Hebrew from Genesis".
277.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), Crisis of Conscience, Commentary Press, p. 56, ISBN 0-914675-23-0
278.^ Robert M. Bowman Jr, Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses, (Grand Rapids MI: Baker Book House, 1992); Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, 2003, The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses, accessible from this site, which quotes a number of scholars regarding theological bias of the New World Translation.
279.^ Samuel Haas,Journal of Biblical Literature, Vol. 74, No. 4, (Dec. 1955), p. 283, "This work indicates a great deal of effort and thought as well as considerable scholarship, it is to be regretted that religious bias was allowed to colour many passages."
280.^ See Ankerberg, John and John Weldon, 2003, The New World Translation of the Jehovah's Witnesses, accessible online
281.^ Rhodes R, The Challenge of the Cults and New Religions, The Essential Guide to Their History, Their Doctrine, and Our Response, Zondervan, 2001, p. 94
282.^ Bruce M Metzger, "Jehovah's Witnesses and Jesus Christ," Theology Today, (April 1953 p. 74); see also Metzger, "The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures," The Bible Translator (July 1964)
283.^ C.H. Dodd: "The reason why [the Word was a god] is unacceptable is that it runs counter to the current of Johannine thought, and indeed of Christian thought as a whole." Technical Papers for The Bible Translator, Vol 28, No. 1, January 1977
284.^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984), The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses, University of Toronto Press, pp. 98–101, ISBN 0-8020-6545-7
285.^ Franz, Raymond (2007), In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, pp. 494–505, ISBN 0-914675-17-6
286.^ G. HÉBERT/EDS, "Jehovah's Witnesses", The New Catholic Encyclopedia, Gale, 20052, Vol. 7, p. 751.
287.^ Metzger, Bruce M., The New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures, The Bible Translator 15/3 (July 1964), pp. 150-153.
288.^ "God’s Name and the New Testament", The Divine Name That Will Endure Forever, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1984, pages 23-27, Read online
289.^ "Appendix 1D The Divine Name in the Christian Greek Scriptures", New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures - With References, page 1565
290.^ "Your Bible—How It Was Produced", The Watchtower, December 15, 1981, page 15
291.^ Jason D. BeDuhn, Truth in Translation: Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament, 2004, pages 165, 169, 175, 176. BeDuhn compared the King James, the (New) Revised Standard, the New International, the New American Bible, the New American Standard Bible, the Amplified Bible, the Living Bible, Today's English and the NWT versions in Matthew 28:9, Philippians 2:6, Colossians 1:15-20, Titus 2:13, Hebrews 1:8, John 8:58, John 1:1.
292.^ Truth in Translation: Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament by Jason BeDuhn, 2004, pages 165, University Press of America, ISBN 0-7618-2556-8, ISBN 978-0-7618-2556-2
Further reading[edit source]
Botting, Gary and Heather. The Orwellian World of Jehovah`s Witnesses (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984). ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. The Bottings compare the social, cultural and political paradigms of Jehovah's Witnesses to those set out in George Orwell's Nineteen Eighty-Four. Both authors were raised Jehovah's Witnesses and are trained scholars (Heather Botting is a professor of anthropology and Gary Botting is a lawyer and legal scholar). The book is based in part on a doctoral dissertation by Heather Botting. Read selections from: The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses (Google book search) University of Toronto Press, ISBN 978-0-8020-6545-2
Botting, Gary. Fundamental Freedoms and Jehovah's Witnesses (Calgary: University of Calgary Press, 1993). ISBN 1-895176-06-9. Botting considers the irony of Jehovah's Witness insisting on a closely regulated society while at the same time fighting for freedom of association, freedom of conscience, freedom of speech, freedom of religion and freedom of the press. It is available on-line at http://www.questia.com/library/102111748/fundamental-freedoms-and-jehovah-s-witnesses.
Castro, Jay. The Truth Book: Escaping a Childhood of Abuse Among Jehovah's Witnesses, adopted as a baby and raised by a devout Jehovah's Witness family. Read selections from: The Truth Book: Escaping a Childhood of Abuse Among Jehovah's Witnesses (Google book search) Published 2005 Arcade Publishing, ISBN 1-55970-787-9
Franz, Raymond. Crisis of Conscience Franz, a former Jehovah's Witness and Governing Body member, and nephew of the fourth president of the Watch Tower Society. This book gives a detailed account of the authority structure, practices, doctrines and decision-making practices Franz experienced while serving on the Governing Body. Sample chapters online: 1, 9, 10, 11, 12. Publisher: Commentary Press. 420 pages. Hardback ISBN 0-914675-24-9. Paperback ISBN 0-914675-23-0. 4th edition (June 2002)
Franz, Raymond. In Search of Christian Freedom. 2nd ed., 2007. ISBN 0-914675-17-6 (Further critique and analysis by this author)
Gruss, Edmond C. Apostles of Denial ISBN 0-87552-305-6 / ISBN 978-0-87552-305-7.
Harrison, Barbara Grizzuti. Visions of Glory: A History and a Memory of Jehovah's Witnesses. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978. ISBN 0-7091-8013-6 (An account by an American journalist and essayist of growing up in the JW religion, which she left at age 22)
Hewitt, Joe. I Was Raised a Jehovah's Witness Hewitt gives a frank and compelling account of his life as a Jehovah's Witness and his subsequent persecution and excommunication after he decided to leave the Jehovah's Witness movement. Read selections from: I Was Raised a Jehovah's Witness (Google book search) Published 1997, Kregel Publications, ISBN 0-8254-2876-9
Jonsson, Carl O. The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return Jonsson considers the origin of the belief that the Gentile Times began in 607 B.C. and examines several lines of evidence and the methodology for deriving it. ISBN 0-914675-06-0 Publisher: Commentary Press (July, 1998, Fourth edition 2004)
King, Robert. Jehovah Himself Has Become King The author considers himself one of Jehovah's Witnesses but was disfellowshipped after publishing his review and criticisms of current Watchtower interpretations related to Bible prophecy, and documentation regarding the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society's involvement with the United Nations. He is presently preparing an updated, second edition. ISBN 1-4208-5498-4 / ISBN 978-1-4208-5498-5 / Publisher: AuthorHouse (September 14, 2005, First Edition) (Available from Amazon.com)
Kostelniuk, James. Wolves Among Sheep. Harpercollins Trade Sales Dept, ISBN 978-0-00-639107-4
Penton, M. James. Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2nd ed., 1997. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Scholarly examination of JW history and doctrines)
Schnell, William J. 30 Years a Watchtower Slave Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 1956, 1971, reprinted 2001. ISBN 0-8010-6384-1 (One of the first book-length critiques of the organization to be written by a disaffected former Witness)*Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, who is a former Jehovah's Witness and a professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the Story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
Stafford, Greg. Jehovah's Witnesses Defended and Three Dissertations. The author considers himself one of Jehovah's Witnesses but has renounced affiliation with the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. He now considers himself a Christian Witness of Jah, or one of Jehovah's Witnesses who rejects beliefs specific to Jehovah's Witnesses. These books review and thoroughly explore some of the most common, and/or prevalent, criticisms made about Jehovah's Witnesses and the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. http://www.elihubooks.com/content/books_media.php
External links[edit source]
SupportiveOfficial Jehovah's Witnesses website
Jehovah's Witnesses response to child abuse allegations (video)
Jehovah's Witnesses Official Policy on Child Protection
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
CriticalApologetics index - Criticisms of Jehovah's Witnesses from a mainstream Christian viewpoint.
Associated Jehovah's Witnesses for Reform on Blood - A site that promotes reform of the Watch Tower Society's blood doctrine.
Exposé on the Jehovah's Witnesses - From Blue Letter Bible. An examination of the Watch Tower Society. Contains relatively brief explanations of each point.
Free Minds, Inc - the largest Watchtower dissident site
Historical Idealism and Jehovah's Witnesses - Documents the historical development of Jehovah's Witness chronology and the claimed "idealized" history of it by the Watch Tower Society
JW Files--Research on Jehovah's Witnesses - A site "dedicated to research on Jehovah Witnesses".
jwfacts.com - Information about Jehovah's Witnesses
JWRecovery Magazine - An ex-JW community contributed magazine / journal which provides information and support assistance to former Jehovah's Witnesses.
Religious Tolerance.org Jehovah's Witnesses Policies & examples of child sexual abuse.
Silentlambs.org Silentlamb's official web site.

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Charles Taze Russell

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Charles Taze Russell
Charles Taze Russell sharp.jpg
Russell in 1911.
 
Born
February 16, 1852
Allegheny, Pennsylvania
Died
October 31, 1916 (aged 64)
Pampa, Texas
Spouse(s)
Maria Frances Ackley
Parents
Joseph Lytel Russell
 Ann Eliza Birney

 

 A simplified chart of historical developments of major groups within Bible Students
Charles Taze Russell (February 16, 1852 – October 31, 1916), or Pastor Russell, was a prominent early 20th century Christian restorationist minister from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA, and founder of what is now known as the Bible Student movement,[1][2] from which Jehovah's Witnesses and numerous independent Bible Student groups emerged after his death.
Beginning in July 1879 he began publishing a monthly religious journal, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence. The journal is now published by Jehovah's Witnesses on a semi-monthly basis under the name, The Watchtower Announcing Jehovah's Kingdom. In 1881 he co-founded Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society and in 1884 the corporation was officially registered, with Russell as president. Russell wrote many articles, books, tracts, pamphlets and sermons, totaling approximately 50,000 printed pages. From 1886 to 1904, he published a six-volume Bible study series originally entitled Millennial Dawn, later renamed Studies in the Scriptures, nearly 20 million copies of which were printed and distributed around the world in several languages during his lifetime.[3] (A seventh volume was commissioned by his successor as society president, Joseph Rutherford, and published in 1917.) The Watch Tower Society ceased publication of Russell's writings in 1927,[4] though his books are still published by several independent groups.
Russell was a charismatic figure, but claimed no special revelation or vision for his teachings and no special authority on his own behalf.[5] He stated that he did not seek to found a new denomination, but instead intended merely to gather together those who were seeking the truth of God's Word "during this harvest time".[6][7][8] He wrote that the "clear unfolding of truth" within his teachings was due to "the simple fact that God's due time has come; and if I did not speak, and no other agent could be found, the very stones would cry out."[9] He viewed himself—and all other Christians anointed with the Holy Spirit—as "God's mouthpiece" and an ambassador of Christ.[9] Later in his career he accepted without protest that many Bible Students viewed him as the "faithful and wise servant" of Matthew 24:45,[10] and was described by the Watch Tower after his death as having been made "ruler of all the Lord's goods".[10]
After Russell's death, a crisis arose surrounding Rutherford's leadership of the society, culminating in a movement-wide schism. As many as three-quarters of the approximately 50,000[11] Bible Students who had been associating in 1917 had left by 1931, resulting in the formation of several groups that retained variations on the name Bible Students. Those who maintained fellowship with the Watch Tower Society adopted the name Jehovah's witnesses in 1931, while those who severed ties with the Society formed their own groups including the Pastoral Bible Institute in 1918, the Laymen's Home Missionary Movement in 1919, and the Dawn Bible Students Association in 1929.

Contents
  [hide] 1 Early life
2 Marriage
3 Ministry 3.1 Beginnings
3.2 Split with Barbour
3.3 Watch Tower Society
3.4 Publications 3.4.1 Studies in the Scriptures
3.4.2 Photo Drama of Creation

4 Theology and teachings
5 Death
6 Legacy
7 Controversies 7.1 Leadership style
7.2 Allegation of immoral conduct
7.3 'Miracle Wheat'
7.4 Qualifications
7.5 Alleged connections with Freemasonry
8 References
9 External links

Early life[edit source]
Part of a series onBible Students
Communities
Free Bible Students
Jehovah's Witnesses
Laymen's Home Missionary Movement
Publishing houses
Dawn Bible Students Association
Pastoral Bible Institute
Watch Tower · IBSA
Publications
The New Creation
Frank and Ernest (broadcast)
Studies in the Scriptures
The Photo-Drama of Creation
The Watchtower · Awake!
Biographies
Charles Taze Russell
Jonas Wendell · William Henry Conley
Nelson H. Barbour · Paul S. L. Johnson
A. H. Macmillan · J. F. Rutherford
Conrad C. Binkele
Beliefs
Jehovah · Nontrinitarianism · Ransom
Dispensationalism · Sheol and Hades
Resurrection · Annihilationism
This box: view·
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Charles Taze Russell was born to Scotch-Irish parents,[12] immigrant Joseph Lytel Russell /ˈlɪtəl/ (d. December 17, 1897) and Ann Eliza Birney (d. January 25, 1861), on February 16, 1852 in Allegheny, Pennsylvania, USA. Russell was the second of five children, and was one of only two to survive into adulthood. His mother died when he was 9 years old.[13]
The Russells lived in Philadelphia, as well as Allegheny, before moving to Pittsburgh, where they became members of the Presbyterian Church. In his early teens, Charles' father made him partner of his Pittsburgh haberdashery store. By age twelve, Russell was writing business contracts for customers and given charge of some of his father's other clothing stores.[14] At age thirteen, Russell left the Presbyterian Church to join the Congregational Church. In his youth he was known to chalk Bible verses on fence boards and city sidewalks to draw attention to the punishment of hell awaiting the unfaithful in an attempt to convert unbelievers.[15]
At age sixteen, a discussion with a childhood friend on faults perceived in Christianity (such as contradictions in creeds, along with medieval traditions) led Russell to question his faith. He then investigated various other religious, but concluded that they did not provide the answers he was seeking.[16] In 1870, at age eighteen, he attended a presentation by Adventist minister Jonas Wendell. During his presentation Wendell outlined his belief that 1873 or 1874 would be the date for Christ's second coming. He later stated that although he did not entirely agree with the arguments presented by Wendell the presentation itself was sufficient to inspire within him a renewed zeal and re-establish his belief that the Bible is the word of God.[17]
Marriage[edit source]
On March 13, 1879, Russell married Maria Frances Ackley (/məˈraɪ.ə/; 1850–1938) after a few months' acquaintance.[18] The couple separated in 1897. Russell blamed the marriage breakup on disagreements over Maria Russell's insistence for a greater editorial role in Zion's Watch Tower magazine,[19] though a later court judgment noted that he had labelled the marriage "a mistake" three years before the dispute over her editorial ambitions had arisen.[20] Maria Russell filed a suit for legal separation in the Court of Common Pleas at Pittsburgh in June 1903 and three years later filed for divorce under the claim of mental cruelty.[21] She was granted a divorce from bed and board, with alimony, in 1908.[22] Maria Russell died at the age of 88 in St. Petersburg, Florida on March 12, 1938 from complications related to Hodgkin's disease.[23]
Ministry[edit source]
Beginnings[edit source]
Part of a series on
Jehovah's Witnesses

Overview

Organizational structure
Governing Body
Watch Tower Bible
 and Tract Society
Corporations
 
History
Bible Student movement
Leadership dispute
Splinter groups
Doctrinal development
Unfulfilled predicitions
 
Demographics
By country
 

Beliefs·
 Practices
 
Salvation·
 Eschatology

The 144,000
Faithful and discreet slave
Hymns·
 God's name
 
Blood·
 Discipline

 
Literature

The Watchtower·
 Awake!

New World Translation
List of publications
Bibliography
 
Teaching programs

Kingdom Hall·
 Gilead School

 
People

Watch Tower presidents

W. H. Conley·
 C. T. Russell
 
J. F. Rutherford·
 N. H. Knorr
 
F. W. Franz·
 M. G. Henschel

D. A. Adams
 
Formative influences

William Miller·
 Henry Grew
 
George Storrs·
 N. H. Barbour

 
Notable former members

Raymond Franz·
 Olin Moyle

 
Opposition

Criticism·
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Supreme Court cases
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About 1870, Russell and his father established a group with a number of acquaintances to undertake an analytical study of the Bible and the origins of Christian doctrine, creed, and tradition. The group, strongly influenced by the writings of Millerite Adventist ministers George Storrs and George Stetson, themselves frequent attendees, came to the conclusion that many of the primary doctrines of the established churches, including the trinity, hellfire and inherent immortality of the soul, were not substantiated by the scriptures.[24][25][26][27]
Around January 1876 Russell received a copy of Nelson Barbour's Herald of the Morning in the mail. Russell telegraphed Barbour to set up a meeting. The first response was a visit by Barbour and John Henry Paton in Allegheny in March 1876 at Russell's expense to hear their arguments, and compare the conclusions that each side had made in their studies. Russell sponsored a speech by Barbour in St. George's Hall, Philadelphia in August 1876 and attended other lectures by Barbour.
Among the teachings Barbour introduced to Russell was the view that Christians who had died would be raised in April 1878.[28] Russell, who had previously rejected prophetic chronology, was moved to devote his life to what he was convinced were now the last two years before the invisible, spiritual return of Christ. He sold his five clothing stores for approximately $300,000 (current value $6,468,000). With Russell's encouragement and financial backing, Barbour wrote an outline of their views in Three Worlds and the Harvest of This World, published in 1877. A text Russell had previously written, entitled The Object and Manner of our Lord's Return, was published concurrently through the offices of the Herald of the Morning.[29] Russell was eager to lead a Christian revival and called two separate meetings of Christian leaders in Pittsburgh. Russell's ideas, particularly stressing the imminence of the rapture and the second advent of Christ, were rejected both times.[30][31]
Split with Barbour[edit source]
See also: Nelson H. Barbour
When 1878 arrived, failure of the expected rapture of the saints brought great disappointment for Barbour and Russell, and their associates and readers. According to one of Russell's associates, A.H. Macmillan:

While talking with Russell about the events of 1878, I told him that Pittsburgh papers had reported he was on the Sixth Street bridge dressed in a white robe on the night of the Memorial of Christ's death, expecting to be taken to heaven together with many others. I asked him, "Is that correct?" Russell laughed heartily and said: "I was in bed that night between 10:30 and 11:00 P.M. However, some of the more radical ones might have been there, but I was not. Neither did I expect to be taken to heaven at that time, for I felt there was much work to be done preaching the Kingdom message to the peoples of the earth before the church would be taken away.
—A.H. Macmillan, Faith on the March, 1957, page 27
Confused by what was perceived to be an error in calculation, Russell re-examined the doctrine to see if he could determine whether it had biblical origins or was simply Christian tradition. He concluded that it was Christian tradition and so he began teaching, through the pages of the Herald, what he believed to have discovered on the subject. Barbour, embarrassed by the failure of their expectations, rejected Russell's explanation and a debate ensued in successive issues of the journal from early 1878 to mid-1879. In a matter of months, Barbour's embarrassment led to a recanting of some of the views he and Russell had previously shared, including any reliance upon prophetic chronology. Their disagreements turned into a debate over Christ's ransom, resulting in a split between the two. Russell removed his financial support and started his own journal, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, with the first issue published in July 1879. Barbour formed The Church of the Strangers that same year, continuing to publish Herald of the Morning.[32][33][34]
Watch Tower Society[edit source]
In 1881, he founded Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society, with William Henry Conley as president and Russell as secretary-treasurer, for the purpose of disseminating tracts, papers, doctrinal treatises and Bibles. All materials were printed and bound by Russell's privately owned Tower Publishing Company for an agreed price,[35] then distributed by "colporteurs" (persons who travel to sell or publicize Bibles, religious tracts, etc.). The Society was incorporated in 1884, with Russell as president, and in 1886 its name was changed to Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society.
In 1908, Russell transferred the headquarters of the Watch Tower Society to its current location in Brooklyn, New York.
Publications[edit source]
With the formation of the Watch Tower Society, Russell's ministry intensified. His Bible study group had grown to hundreds of local members, with followers throughout New England, the Virginias, Ohio, and elsewhere, who annually re-elected him "Pastor", and commonly referred to him as "Pastor Russell". Congregations that eventually formed in other nations also followed this tradition.[36][37]
In 1881, he published his first prominent work entitled Food for Thinking Christians. The 162-page "pamphlet" was published using donated funds amounting to approximately $40,000 (current value $951,586).[38] It had a circulation of nearly 1.5 million copies over a period of four months distributed throughout the United States, Canada and Great Britain by various channels.[39][40] During the same year he published Tabernacle and its Teachings which was quickly expanded and reissued as Tabernacle Shadows of the "Better Sacrifices" outlining his interpretation of the various animal sacrifices and Tabernacle ceremonies instituted by Moses. Russell claimed that the distribution of these works and other tracts by the Watch Tower Society during 1881 exceeded by eight times that of the American Tract Society for the year 1880.[41]
In 1903, newspapers began publishing his written sermons. These newspaper sermons were syndicated worldwide in as many as 4,000 newspapers, eventually reaching an estimated readership of some 15 million in the United States and Canada.[36]
In 1910 the secular journal Overland Monthly calculated that by 1909 Russell's writings had become the most distributed privately produced English-language works in the United States, and that the entire corpus of his works were the third most circulated on earth, after the Bible and the Chinese Almanac.[42] In 1912 The Continent, a Presbyterian journal, stated that in North America his writings had achieved a greater circulation "than the combined circulation of the writings of all the priests and preachers in North America."[43]
Russell, however, had many critics and was often labeled a heretic.[44]
Studies in the Scriptures[edit source]
Russell devoted nearly a tenth of his fortune, along with contributed funds, in publishing and distributing Food for Thinking Christians in 1881. In the same year followed The Tabernacle and its Teachings and Tabernacle Shadows of the Better Sacrifices. In 1886, after reportedly not making back most of the money spent publishing these three titles, he began publication of what was intended to be a seven-volume series. The volumes were collectively called Millennial Dawn, later renamed Studies in the Scriptures to clarify that they were not novels. Russell published six volumes in the series:[citation needed]
The Plan of the Ages – later renamed The Divine Plan of the Ages (1886)
The Time is at Hand (1889)
Thy Kingdom Come (1891)
The Day of Vengeance – later renamed The Battle of Armageddon (1897)
The At-one-ment Between God and Men (1899)
The New Creation (1904)
The delayed publication of the seventh volume became a source of great anticipation and mystery among Bible Students. Following Russell's death in 1916, a seventh volume entitled The Finished Mystery was published in 1917, which was advertised as his "posthumous work". This seventh volume was a detailed interpretation of the Book of Revelation, but also included interpretations of Ezekiel and the Song of Solomon. Immediate controversy surrounded both its publication and content, and it soon became known that much of the contents were written and compiled by two of Russell's associates, Clayton J. Woodworth and George H. Fisher, and edited by Joseph Rutherford, by then the new president of the Watch Tower Society.[45]
Photo Drama of Creation[edit source]
Main article: The Photo-Drama of Creation
Russell directed the production of a worldwide roadshow presentation entitled The Photo-Drama of Creation, an innovative eight-hour religious film in four parts, incorporating sound, moving film, and color slides. It was the first major screenplay to synchronize sound with moving film. Production began as early as 1912, and the Drama was introduced in 1914 by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania.[46][47] A book by the same name was also published. The project's expenses put the organization under some financial pressures; the full cost was estimated at about US$300,000 (current value $6,880,000).[48][49][50]
Theology and teachings[edit source]
Following his analytical examination of the Bible, Russell and other Bible Students came to believe that Christian creeds and traditions were harmful errors, believing they had restored Christianity to the purity held in the first century. Such views and conclusions were viewed as heresy by many Church leaders and scholars in his day. Russell agreed with other Protestants on the primacy of the Bible, and justification by faith alone, but thought that errors had been introduced in interpretation. Russell agreed with many 19th century Protestants, including Millerites, in the concept of a Great Apostasy that began in the first century AD. He also agreed with many other contemporary Protestants in belief in the imminent Second Coming of Christ, and Armageddon. Some of the areas in which his Scriptural interpretations differed from those of Catholics, and many Protestants, include the following:

 

 The Chart of the AgesHell. He maintained that there was a heavenly resurrection of 144,000 righteous, as well as a "great multitude", but believed that the remainder of mankind slept in death, awaiting an earthly resurrection.
The Trinity. Russell believed in the divinity of Christ, but differed from orthodoxy by teaching Jesus had received that divinity as a gift from the Father, after dying on the cross. He also taught that the Holy Spirit is not a person, but the manifestation of God's power.
Christ's Second Coming. Russell believed that Christ had returned invisibly in 1874, and that he had been ruling from the heavens since that date. He predicted that a period known as the "Gentile Times" would end in 1914, and that Christ would take power of Earth's affairs at that time. He interpreted the outbreak of World War I as the beginning of Armageddon, which he viewed to be both a gradual deterioration of civilized society, and a climactic multi-national attack on a restored Israel accompanied by worldwide anarchy.
Pyramidology. Following views first taught by Christian writers such as John Taylor, Charles Piazzi Smyth and Joseph Seiss, he believed the Great Pyramid of Giza was built by the Hebrews (associated to the Hyksos) under God’s direction, but to be understood only in our day. He adopted and used Seiss's phrase referring to it as "the Bible in stone". He believed that certain biblical texts, including Isaiah 19:19–20 and others, prophesied a future understanding of the Great Pyramid and adopted the view that the various ascending and descending passages represented the fall of man, the provision of the Mosaic Law, the death of Christ, the exultation of the saints in heaven, etc. Calculations were made using the pattern of an inch per year. Dates such as 1874, 1914, and 1948 were purported to have been found through the study of this monument.[51]
Christian Zionism. Expanding upon an idea suggested by Nelson Barbour, Russell taught as early as 1879 that God's favor had been restored to Jews as the result of a prophetic "double" which had ended in 1878 (favor from Jacob to Jesus, then disfavor from Jesus until 1878). In 1910, he conducted a meeting at the New York Hippodrome Theatre, with thousands of Jews attending. Jews and Christians alike were shocked by his teaching that Jews should not convert to Christianity. Russell believed that the land of Palestine belonged exclusively to the Jewish race, that God was now calling them back to their land, and that they would be the center of earthly leadership under God's Kingdom. Early in Russell's ministry, he speculated that the Jews would possibly flock to Palestine and form their own nation by the year 1910. Shortly before his death, he utilized the Jewish press to stress that 1914 prophetically marked the time when Gentile nations no longer had earthly authority with the result that all Jews were, from that time onward, permitted and guided by God to gather to Palestine and boldly reclaim the land for themselves.
Climate change. In writings as early as 1883 (and through to the end of his life) Russell repeatedly expressed the view that the world's climate would gradually but significantly change as a prelude to the re-establishment of Eden-like conditions. These changes, he said, would include the gradual melting of the Greenland ice sheet, the Arctic and Antarctic polar ice caps, and the general warming of the earth.[52]
Death[edit source]

40°30′35.27″N 80°0′56.65″W

 

 Pyramid memorial at Russell's gravesite in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 

 Russell's tombstone in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Russell's health had become increasingly poor in the last three years leading up to his death. During his final ministerial tour of the western and southwestern United States he became increasingly ill with cystitis,[53] but ignored advice to abandon the tour. He suffered severe chills during his last week, and at times had to be held in position in bed to prevent suffocation. He was forced to deliver some of his Bible discourses sitting in a chair, and on a few occasions his voice was so weak as to be barely audible.[54] Russell, aged 64 died on October 31, 1916, near Pampa, Texas, while returning to Brooklyn by train.[53][55][56][57][58][59] An associate of Russell's stated that at age 64 his body was more worn out than that of his father who died at age 89.[60] He was buried in Rosemont United Cemetery, Pittsburgh. The gravesite (vide coordinates above) is marked by a headstone, nearby stands a 7-foot-tall (2.1 m) pyramid memorial erected by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society in 1921.[61][62]
Legacy[edit source]
See also: Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)
For more details on this topic, see Watch Tower Society Reorganization.
In January 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford was elected president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, despite disputes over the election process. Further disputes arose over interpretation of sections of Russell's will dealing with the future contents of Zion's Watch Tower magazine, as well as who, if anyone, had authority to print new literature. By the end of the 1920s, nearly three quarters of the Bible Student congregations had rejected[63][64] Rutherford's on-going changes in organizational structure, doctrinal interpretations, and congregational practices,[65][66][67] some of which began to appear in material printed by the Watch Tower Society as early as 1917. Many Bible Students were disaffected by Rutherford's rejection of Russell's views regarding his role in the restoration of the "truth"[68] and support of the Great Pyramid as having been built under God's direction.[69][70]
Those remaining supportive of Rutherford adopted the new name "Jehovah's witnesses" in 1931, and changed the keyword of their magazine from "Watch Tower" to "The Watchtower". Many of the most prominent Bible Students who had ceased association with the changing Watch Tower Society attempted a regathering of disaffected Bible Students in October 1929 by holding the First Annual Bible Students Reunion Convention in the old Pittsburgh "Bible House" long used by Russell.[71] These conventions were held yearly, but the process of regathering took nearly twenty years.[72]
Controversies[edit source]
Leadership style[edit source]
As early as 1892, Russell's views and management style were strongly criticized by certain individuals associated with his ministry. In 1893 a paper was written and circulated to Bible Students in Pittsburgh by associates Otto van Zech, Elmer Bryan, J.B. Adamson, S.G. Rogers, Paul Koetitz, and others. It accused Russell of being a dictatorial leader, a shrewd businessman who appeared eager to collect funds from the selling of the Millennial Dawn books, that he had cheated one of them out of financial gains, and that he issued thousands of Millennial Dawn books under a female pseudonym. A booklet entitled A Conspiracy Exposed and Harvest Siftings was written by Russell and issued as an extra to the April 1894 Zion's Watch Tower magazine in order to preempt attempts to have their views circulated to a wider audience of Bible Students. Russell printed copies of letters he had received from these former associates in order to show that their claims were false, and that those involved 'were guided by Satan in an attempt to subvert his work' as a "minister of the gospel".[73][74]
Allegation of immoral conduct[edit source]
In 1897 Russell's wife, Maria, left him after a disagreement over the management of Zion's Watch Tower magazine. She believed that, as his wife, she should have equal control over its administration and equal privilege in writing articles, preaching, and traveling abroad as his representative.[75] In 1903 she filed for legal separation on the grounds of mental cruelty, because of what she considered to be forced celibacy and frequent cold, indifferent treatment. The separation was granted in 1906, with Russell charged to pay alimony.
During the trial Mrs. Russell's attorney alleged that in 1894 Mr. Russell had engaged in "improper intimacy" with Rose Ball, by then a 25-year old woman whom the Russells had previously cared for as a foster daughter after claiming to be an orphan. Mrs. Russell alleged that Ball had told her Mr. Russell claimed to be an amorous "jellyfish floating around" to different women until someone responded to his advances. Mr. Russell denied the accusations and stated that he had never used such terminology to describe himself.[76] When the judge asked Mrs. Russell if she was accusing her husband of adultery, she replied, "No".[77]
The Washington Post[78] and the Mission Friend of Chicago reprinted the "jellyfish" story while also accusing Russell of immoral conduct. Russell sued the papers for libel; the jury decided in his favor, awarding him one dollar. Following an appeal, Russell received a cash settlement of $15,000 (current value $383,000) plus court costs, and an agreement that the two papers publish his weekly syndicated sermons as well as a retraction defending his character.[79][80][81]
Rose Ball Henninges died November 22, 1950 at the age of 81 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, having for several years been an author for The People's Paper and remained associated with the Bible Students in Australia until her death.[82][83]
'Miracle Wheat'[edit source]
On March 22, 1911, The Brooklyn Daily Eagle published articles accusing Russell of gaining profit from a strain of wheat named "Miracle Wheat" by its alleged discoverer, K.B. Stoner of Fincastle, Virginia. Many critics insisted that Russell had deceived and defrauded many by selling the supposedly advanced strain of wheat for $60 per bushel, far above the average cost of wheat at the time. Throughout 1912 and 1913, the Eagle continued to report on Russell's alleged fraud. Russell sued the Eagle for libel, but lost. A government expert investigated the "Miracle Wheat" and said it "was low in the Government tests". Prior to entering the court, the Eagle declared that "at the trial it will show that "Pastor" Russell's religious cult is nothing more than a money-making scheme."[84] Russell defended himself publicly, and in writing, claiming that the wheat was donated to the Watch Tower Society, and although sold for $1 per pound, Mr. Stoner routinely sold it for a $1.25 per pound. Russell claimed to have no financial connection to the wheat, and that no one claimed a refund despite such an offer for up to a year later for any who were dissatisfied with their purchase.[85] According to official records, gross receipts from the fundraiser totaled "about $1800" (current value $44,000), of which "Russell himself did not get a penny" and "The Society itself made no claim for the wheat on its own knowledge and the money received went as a donation into Christian missionary work."[86]
Qualifications[edit source]
In June 1912 Rev. J. J. Ross (1871–1935), Pastor of the James Street Baptist Church in Hamilton, Ontario, published and widely distributed a four-page leaflet entitled, Some facts about the Self-Styled "Pastor" Charles T. Russell (of Millennial Dawn Fame), alleging that Russell was involved in questionable business practices, had defrauded his estranged wife, and denounced his qualifications, legitimacy and moral example as a Pastor.[87] Russell in turn sued Ross for defamatory libel on December 2, 1912.[88] After several delays the case came before Police Court Magistrate G. F. Jelfs on March 17, 1913. During cross-examination Russell stated that he had attended public school for only seven years having left when he was about fourteen years of age after which he received instruction through private tutors.[89] He responded that he was versed in Latin terms "to an extent" but did not know Hebrew or Greek, that he had never been ordained by any bishop or minister, and had never attended a theological seminary or any schools of higher learning.[90][91] The Hamilton and Toronto Ontario newspapers reported the claims made by Ross and provided a brief outline of the court proceedings, but made no reference to misconduct on the part of Russell, and criticized Ross for having fled Ontario when summoned and not being present during any of the court proceedings.[92][93] On April 1, 1913 the High Court of Ontario returned a verdict of "No Bill" ruling that Russell was not entitled to damages because the libel was not likely to result in any violence within Canada.[94][95] Following the libel case Ross published an expanded edition of 48-pages entitled Some Facts and More Facts about the Self-Styled "Pastor" Charles T. Russell (of Millennial Dawn Fame). In this work Ross claimed that during the proceedings on March 17, 1913 Russell had repeatedly lied under oath by affirming that he was ordained but then denying the same when cross-examined, by affirming that he knew the Greek language, but when shown by Counselor Staunton an extract from the New Testament in Greek by Westcott & Hort he was unable to recognize it, and that he had not been divorced from his wife, but retracted the statement under cross-examination.[96] In response to Ross's accusations, Russell stated through various printed and public sources that he had never claimed knowledge of the Greek language, merely the alphabet[97] and that early Christians were also criticized by the religious authorities for being unlearned and ignorant.[98] He believed that his ordination was "of God" according to the biblical pattern, not requiring any denominational approval or theological training indicating that his annual election as "Pastor" by over 500 congregations worldwide constituted him as properly ordained.[99][100] Russell contended that Ross and others were attacking him because they were unable to answer his theological arguments preferring instead to resort to slander and character assassination.[101]
Alleged connections with Freemasonry[edit source]

 This section may contain improper references to self-published sources. Please help improve it by removing references to unreliable sources, where they are used inappropriately. (May 2009) 
Several decades after his death, it was alleged that Russell had links with Freemasonry.[102] Some have claimed that various symbols Russell employed in his published literature are Masonic in nature, and that such associations implied he engaged in occult activity. In later editions of the Studies in the Scriptures series a winged solar disk was stamped on the front cover, a symbol that is also associated with Freemasonry.[citation needed] However, Russell's use of the winged solar-disk originated from his understanding of Malachi 4:2, which denotes a sun with wings, as a symbol that Christ's millennial Kingdom had begun to emerge.[103] Some critics also claim that the pyramid near Russell's gravesite is Masonic,[62][104][105][106] because of its shape and its use of the Cross and Crown symbol, although this remains disputed.[107][108] Despite these claims, the Grand Lodge officially stated that Russell was not a Freemason,[109][110] and the symbols used are not exclusive to Masonry but pre-date the fraternity.[citation needed] The Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology notes that Russell's supporters, along with other Christian churches have "shown a marked aversion to Spiritualism and other occult phenomena. Very early in the group’s history Russell attacked Spiritualism (which he called Spiritism)".[111]
In June 1913, during his transcontinental speaking tour, Russell gave a discourse in a Masonic hall in San Francisco, where he stated: "Although I have never been a Mason ... Something I do seems to be the same as Masons do, I don't know what it is; but they often give me all kinds of grips and I give them back, then I tell them I don't know anything about it except just a few grips that have come to me naturally."[112] Throughout his ministry he stated that he believed Christian identity is incompatible with Freemasonry,[113] and that Freemasonry, Knights of Pythias, Theosophy, and other such groups are "grievous evils" and "unclean".[114][115] A Freemasonry website states: "Russell was not a Freemason. Neither the symbols found in the Watchtower nor the cross and crown symbol are exclusively Masonic."[116]
References[edit source]
1.^ "Encyclopædia Britannica – Russell, Charles Taze". Britannica.com. 1916-10-31. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
2.^ Parkinson, James The Bible Student Movement in the Days of CT Russell, 1975
3.^ Penton, M. James (1997, 2nd ed.). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 13–46. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
4.^ WTB&TS, "God's Kingdom of a Thousand Years Has Approached" (1973) page 347
5.^ moreorless. "George D. Chryssides, "Unrecognized charisma? A study of four charismatic leaders". Center of Studies on New Religions. Retrieved on 23 July 2008". Cesnur.org. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
6.^ Zion's Watch Tower, Sept. 15, 1895, pg 216: "Beware of "organization." It is wholly unnecessary. The Bible rules will be the only rules you will need. Do not seek to bind others' consciences, and do not permit others to bind yours."
7.^ Studies in the Scriptures, Volume 4 The Battle of Armageddon, 1897, pp 157–159
8.^ Daschke, Dereck and W. Michael Ashcraft, eds. New Religious Movements. New York: New York UP, 2005. Print.
9.^ a b Zion's Watch Tower, July 15, 1906, p. 229.
10.^ a b Watch Tower, March 1, 1923, pages 68 and 71.
11.^ The New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, 1910, vol 7, pg 374. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
12.^ "Part 1—Early Voices (1870–1878)". The Watchtower: 7. 1 January 1955. "Both parents were Presbyterians of Scottish-Irish lineage."
13.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, 1959, p. 17
14.^ Jehovah's Witnesses Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993, p. 42
15.^ Overland Monthly February 1917 pg 129: "Up to the age of fifteen ... his favorite teacher was Spurgeon, because, as he said, "he peppered it hot," his claim being that if one believed a thing he should tell it with all his might. So at the age of fifteen he used to go about the city of Pittsburg on Saturday evenings with a piece of chalk writing on the fence boards and telling the people not to fail to attend church on Sunday, so that they might escape the terrible hell in which he so firmly believed."
16.^ The Bible Student Movement in the Days of CT Russell, 1975, p. A–1
17.^ Zion's Watch Tower, June 1, 1916 p. 170: "Though his Scripture exposition was not entirely clear, and though it was very far from what we now rejoice in, it was sufficient, under God, to reestablish my wavering faith in the Divine inspiration of the Bible, and to show that the records of the Apostles and the Prophets are indissolubly linked. What I heard sent me to my Bible to study with more zeal and care than ever before, and I shall ever thank the Lord for the leading; for although Adventism helped me to no single truth, it did help me greatly in the unlearning of errors, and thus prepared me for the Truth."
18.^ Pittsburgh Gazette, March 14, 1879
19.^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. pp. 35–40. ISBN 978-0-8020-7973-2.
20.^ Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Visions of Glory - A History and Memory of Jehovah's Witnesses, Simon & Schuster, 1978, chapter 2.
21.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in Canada: Champions of Freedom of Speech and Worship by M. James Penton, Macmillan of Canada, 1976, page 313, "Mrs. Russell obtained her "divorce", or separation, on grounds of mental cruelty"
22.^ Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, p. 642
23.^ St. Petersburg Times, March 14, 1938. "Woman Religious Writer, Resident 16 Years, Passes". The Evening Independent. March 14, 1938.
24.^ Penton, M. James (1997, 2nd ed.). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 14–17. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
25.^ Alan Rogerson (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die. Constable. p. 6.
26.^ Wills, Tony (2006). A People For His Name. Lulu Enterprises. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-4303-0100-4.
27.^ Zion's Watch Tower, June 1, 1916 pp. 170–175
28.^ Herald of the Morning, July 1878 p.5
29.^ Zion's Watch Tower, July 15, 1906, p. 230
30.^ The Bible Student Movement in the Days of CT Russell, 1975, pp A–2
31.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, 1959, pp. 18–19
32.^ Message to Herald of the Morning subscribers, Zion's Watch Tower, July 1, 1879, Supplement
33.^ Rochester Union and Advertiser, October 5, 1895, p. 12
34.^ Zion's Watch Tower, June 1, 1916 p. 171
35.^ 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 42
36.^ a b Biography of Pastor Russell, Divine Plan of the Ages, 1918, p. 6
37.^ Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, 1915
38.^ Overland Monthly, January 1917 p. 128
39.^ Watch Tower, December 1, 1916 p. 357
40.^ Zion's Watch Tower, September 1881 p. 5
41.^ Zion's Watch Tower, September 1881 p. 5: "As we were reaching Christians in the cities with the pamphlets, we sent the papers only with weekly and monthly journals, and hope thus to have reached many Christians in country districts. We sent out in this way over 400,000 copies. Thus you see that from an apparently small beginning, the tract work has spread to the immense proportions of 1,200,000 copies, or about 200,000,000 pages in four months, or about eight times as much (in number) as were distributed by the American Tract Society in the last year."
42.^ Overland Monthly, January 1910 p. 130: "As a writer, Mr. Russell's books have enjoyed a larger circulation than any English work... Of his work entitled "Studies in the Scriptures," the average output is two thousand three hundred copies for each working day. We regret the records of 1909 are not yet complete, but in 1908 seven hundred and twenty-eight thousand, four hundred and seventy-four volumes were sold. Since publication, three million five hundred and thirty-four thousand volumes have been circulated. Last year, in addition to these there were three hundred and eight million pages of his tracts circulated. In all literature the Bible is about the only book that has had a larger circulation... In the literature of the world, the order would probably be as follows: The Bible, the Chinese Almanac, the "Studies in the Scriptures," "Don Quixote," "Uncle Tom's Cabin" and Hubbard's "Message to Garcia.""
43.^ The Continent, McCormick Publishing Company, vol. 43, no. 40, October 3, 1912 p. 1354
44.^ Millennial Dawnism: The Annihilation of Jesus Christ by I.M. Haldeman, 1913; "Pastor" Russell's Position and Credentials by J.H. Burridge; Some Facts about the self-styled "Pastor" Charles T. Russell by J.J. Ross, 1912
45.^ Franz, Raymond (2004). Crisis of Conscience. Atlanta, Georgia: Commentary Press. pp. 61–62, 206–211. ISBN 0-914675-23-0.
46.^ IMDB article "Photo-Drama of Creation (1914), Retrieved 2009-04-15
47.^ "Timeline of Influential Milestones...1910s", American Movie Classics, retrieved 2009-04-15[dead link]
48.^ "Society Uses Many Means to Expand Preaching", Centennial of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania 1884–1984, page 24, "The Photo-Drama presented the explanation of Bible truth from the time of creation, the fall into sin, the promises of God to redeem man and His dealings through history until the millennial restitution. It is believed to have been viewed by more than 9,000,000 people throughout North America and Europe, as well as many others in places around the world. It took two years and $300,000 to complete the project, many of the scenes being hand colored. Yet admission was free and no collections were taken."
49.^ "United States of America", 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 59
50.^ The Warning Work (1909–1914)", The Watchtower, March 1, 1955, page 143
51.^ "The Corroborative Testimony of God's stone witness and prophet, the Great Pyramid in Egypt". Pastor-russell.com. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
52.^ 'Zion's Watch Tower' in the following issues: September 1883 page 8; September 1886 page 1; August 1896 page 189; May 1903 page 131; January 1913 page 11
53.^ a b Wills, Tony (2006). A People For His Name. Lulu Enterprises. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-4303-0100-4.
54.^ "''Zion's Watch Tower'', December 1916, pages R6601: 360-R6006:366". Mostholyfaith.com. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
55.^ Some early sources cited his death as November 1st.
56.^ St. Paul Enterprise, November 14, 1916 p. 3 column 3, "The fact is he did not die of heart trouble, but of an inflammation of the bladder, and while writing you on Brother Bohnet’s desk I could not fail to see on the burial permit that the cause of death was given as ‘Cystitis’."
57.^ Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Constable & Co, London. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-09-455940-0.
58.^ "The Jehovah's Witnesses", Extraordinary groups by W. W. Zellner, William M. Kephart, ©2000, page 338, "On October 31, 1916, the stormy life of Charles Russell came to an end. While on a nationwide lecture tour, he died unexpectedly of heart failure in a Pullman car near Pampa, Texas." Online
59.^ New York Times, November 1, 1916, as cited by A.H. Macmillan, Faith on the March, 1957, page 62, "October 31: Charles Taze Russell, pastor of the Brooklyn Tabernacle, and known all over the country as "Pastor Russell," died from heart disease at 2:30 o'clock this afternoon on an Atchison, Topeka Santa Fe train, en route from Los Angeles to New York."
60.^ St. Paul Enterprise November 14, 1916, pg 1 col 2: "Is it any wonder he died a score of years ahead of his natural time? His father looked younger at 84 than did the son at 64."
61.^ Pictures from Russell's Gravesite[dead link]
62.^ a b Pyramid. Retrieved 2009-5-4.
63.^ Thirty Years a Watchtower Slave, William J. Schnell, Baker, Grand Rapids, 1956, as cited by Alan Rogerson, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, 1969, page 52. Rogerson notes that it is not clear exactly how many Bible Students left. Joseph Rutherford wrote in 1934 that "of the great multitude that left the world to follow Jesus Christ only a few are now in God's organization".
64.^ Chicago Daily Tribune October 30, 1949 pg 18: "Pastor Russell died In 1916. In the 33 years since, the methods of this sect have deviated completely from those of Pastor Russell and his manner of teaching."
65.^ Your Will Be Done on Earth. Watchtower. 1958. p. 337.
66.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watchtower. 1959. p. 313.
67.^ M. James Penton. Apocalypse Delayed—The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 61. Attendance at the annual Memorial (statistics were published each year in the Watch Tower) shows the growth in the period before 1925. 1919: 17,961, 1922: 32,661, 1923: 42,000, 1924: 62,696, 1925: 90,434. 1926 marked the first decrease: 89,278. There are no published statistics from 1929–1934. In 1935, Memorial attendance was 63,146. Watchtower. August 15, 1996. p. 31.
68.^ Watch Tower, February 1927
69.^ Watch Tower, November 1928
70.^ Great Pyramid Passages, by John and Morton Edgar, Forward, 1928 edition
71.^ Bible Student's Radio Echo, February 1929 p. 8
72.^ When Pastor Russell Died, pp. 26-30
73.^ A Conspiracy Exposed and Harvest Siftings, April 25, 1894
74.^ The Bible Student Movement in the Days of CT Russell, 1975, pp P–1 to P–4
75.^ J.F. Rutherford, A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, 1915, pg 17
76.^ Zion's Watch Tower July 15, 1906 pg 221: "The next day the husband [Mr. Russell] took the witness stand and swore that he had never used the language (and never had heard of it before) ... and that only an idiotic person would make such an uncomplimentary remark about himself."
77.^ J.F. Rutherford, A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, 1915, pp 18-20
78.^ The Washington Post May 4, 1906 pg 6, "The Rev. Jellyfish Russell"
79.^ J. Parkinson The Bible Student Movement in the Days of CT Russell, 1975, pg 45
80.^ J.F. Rutherford, A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, 1915, pg 20
81.^ Russell v Washington Post Company Opinion of the Court, May 5, 1908: "We think the defense of privilege is not applicable to the article published by the defendant. The article is unquestionably libelous ... It is not confined to comment and criticism on his acts as a public man or his public life, but, so far as this record discloses, falsely asserts that he has committed certain acts of an immoral nature in his private life."
82.^ Deaths in the District of Melbourne, in Victoria. Registered by Arthur Fegan. Certificate #13463
83.^ The Bible Student Movement in the Days of C.T. Russell, 3rd edition, Notes
84.^ The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, "Miracle Wheat Scandal," January 22, 1913, 2; "Testimony on Wheat," January 23, 1913, 3; "Financial Statements Proving Russell's Absolute Control," by Secretary-Treasurer Van Amberg, January 25, 1913, 16; "Government Experts Testify on 'Miracle Wheat' and Ascertain Its Ordinariness," January 27, 1913, 3; "Prosecution and Defense Closing Arguments," January 28, 1913, 2; "Russell Loses Libel Suit,” January 29, 1913, 16 (available on microfilm)
85.^ A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, 1915, pp. 29–30
86.^ "United States of America", 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 71
87.^ Some facts about the Self-Styled "Pastor" Charles T. Russell (of Millennial Dawn Fame), 1912, pp. 1-3: "By thousands he is believed to be a religious fakir of the worst type... Years ago he gave himself the title of "Pastor" ... By "The Brooklyn Daily Eagle" he stands charged with ... having his name sensationally connected with those of numerous other women ... with publishing himself as giving addresses to great crowds in important places where he has not spoken at all ... with being illegally connected with lead, asphalt and turpentine companies, with selling or causing to be sold "Miracle Wheat" at $60 a bushel, with influencing the sick and dying to make their wills in his favor ... He is an eccentric individual and judging from his advertisements of himself, many do not think him normal, and some are persuaded that he is self-deceived."
88.^ RG 22-329-0-6742 Record of Indictment: The King v. John Jacob Ross - Defamatory Libel, In the Supreme Court of Ontario, High Court Division and in the Court of Oyer and Terminer and General Gaol Delivery in and for the County of Wentworth, pp. 1,5
89.^ The King v. John Jacob Ross, cross-examination by King's Counselor George Lynch-Staunton, March 17, 1913, section II, p. 6
90.^ The King v. John Jacob Ross, cross-examination by King's Counselor George Lynch-Staunton, March 17, 1913, section II, p. 4
91.^ http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/text/apl/jw/jehwit34.txt
92.^ The Hamilton Spectator, Dec. 9, 1912; also Feb. 7, and March 17,18,22 1913
93.^ The Toronto Globe, March 18, 1913
94.^ The Watch Tower, October 15, 1914, p. 286: "The lower Court found him [Ross] guilty of libel. But when the case went to the second Judge he called up an English precedent, in which it was held that criminal libel would only operate in a case where the jury felt sure that there was danger of rioting or violence. As there was no danger that myself or friends would resort to rioting, the case was thrown out."
95.^ A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, p. 31
96.^ Some Facts and More Facts about the Self-Styled 'Pastor' Charles T. Russell, pp. 18-23
97.^ The Watch Tower, October 15, 1914, p. 286: "As respects my education in Greek and Hebrew: Not only do I not claim very special knowledge of either language, but I claim that not one minister in a thousand is either a Hebrew or a Greek scholar."
98.^ The Watch Tower, October 15, 1914, p. 287
99.^ The Watch Tower, December 1, 1915 p. 358–360
100.^ "Preaching Publicly and From House to House", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993, WTB&TS, page 560
101.^ The Watch Tower, October 15, 1914, p. 287: "What is the secret of the opposition and slander that is being raised up against me and against all who, like me, are Bible students? It is malice, hatred, envy, strife, on the part of those who are still hugging the nonsense of the Dark Ages and neglecting true Bible study. They see that their influence is waning. But they have not yet awakened to the true situation. They think that I am responsible for their smaller congregations and small collections. But not so. The real difficulty for them is that the people are becoming more intelligent and can no longer be driven with the crack of a merely man-made whip of fear."
102.^ Springmeier, Fritz. The Watchtower & The Masons: A preliminary investigation. Portland, Or.: the author, 1990.[unreliable source?].
103.^ Zion's Watch Tower, Dec 1, 1911 pp. 443–444
104.^ Masonic. Retrieved 2009-5-4.
105.^ Russell and The Great Pyramid. Retrieved 2009-5-6.
106.^ 3pyramidology Retrieved 2009-5-4.
107.^ Sec. 3, Anti-masonry Frequently Asked Questions. The cross and crown symbol does not appear on his gravestone in the Rosemont United Cemetery, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania — it appears on a memorial erected some years later." Retrieved 2009-5-29.
108.^ Masonic Emblem and Logo Collection. Retrieved 2009-5-29.
109.^ Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon "Was Charles Taze Russell a freemason?" Retrieved 2013-2-17.
110.^ 'Charles Taze Russell' Biography published by Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon. Retrieved 2013-2-17.
111.^ J. Gordon Melton, Encyclopedia of Occultism and Parapsychology, Gale Group, 2001, Vol. 1, p. 829.
112.^ Sermon title: "The Temple of God", Convention Report Sermons pages 359–365, "But now I am talking about this great order of masonry of which Jesus is the Grand Master. This Order is to be entered in a peculiar way. There are certain conditions, the low gate, the narrow way, the difficult path. Although I have never been a Mason, I have heard that in Masonry they have something which very closely illustrates all of this." 6MB download
113.^ "Was Pastor Russell a Freemason?". Pastor-russell.com. Retrieved 2013-01-01.
114.^ Zion's Watch Tower, June, 1895, p. 143
115.^ The New Creation, pages 580–581
116.^ "Anti-masonry Frequently Asked Questions", from the web-site of the Grand Lodge of British Columbia and Yukon. Retrieved on January 21, 2008.
External links[edit source]
 Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Author:Charles Taze Russell
 
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Charles Taze Russell
JW.org Official website of Jehovah's Witnesses
Pastor-Russell.com Pastor Russell website
Faith on the March, A. H. Macmillan, (1957)
Biography of Charles Taze Russell from Zion's Watch Tower obituary issue, December 1, 1916
International Bible Students Souvenir Convention Report for 1916, "Pastor Russell Passes Through the Gates of Glory", Chicago, 1917
Laodicean Messenger (1923) Chicago: The Bible Students Book Store; Memoirs of the Life of Charles Taze Russell.
Message to Herald of the Morning subscribers 1879 Pittsburgh, Pa; Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, July 1, 1879, Supplement
The Messenger of Laodicea, Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1919
Pyramid at Russell's Grave
North Side: People: Charles Taze Russell – information page at the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh’s website.
CT Russell Database – Database of Russell's writings
Russell's Last Will & Testament
Studies in the Scriptures Online
Studies in the Scriptures from Biblestudents.com
St. Paul Enterprise Nov 7, 14, 21 and 28, 1916 articles "Regarding the Death and Burial of, and Memorial Services for, Pastor Russell"
Chapter II. Organizational Beginnings: (1873–1912) Charles Taze Russell from Barbara G. Harrison's Visions of Glory: A History and a Memory of Jehovah’s Witnesses, New York, Simon & Schuster, 1978. See also chapters IV and VI.
Works of Charles Taze Russell and their effect upon Religion in America 1974 Bob Chastain, Master's Thesis
Preceded by
William Henry Conley President of Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society
 December 15, 1884–October 31, 1916 Succeeded by
Joseph F. Rutherford

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Joseph Franklin Rutherford

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Joseph Franklin Rutherford
J.F. Rutherford.gif
Joseph Franklin Rutherford
 
Born
November 8, 1869
Versailles, Missouri
Died
January 8, 1942 (aged 72)
San Diego, California
Occupation
Lawyer
Religion
Jehovah's Witnesses
Spouse(s)
Mary Malcolm Fetzer
Children
Malcolm Rutherford
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Joseph Franklin Rutherford (November 8, 1869 – January 8, 1942), also known as "Judge" Rutherford, was the second president of the incorporated Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. He played a primary role in the organization and doctrinal development of Jehovah's Witnesses,[1][2][3] which emerged from the Bible Student movement established by Charles Taze Russell.
Rutherford began a career in law, working as a court stenographer, trial lawyer and prosecutor. He developed an interest in the doctrines of Watch Tower Society president Charles Taze Russell, which led to his joining the Bible Student movement and was baptized in 1906. He was appointed the legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society in 1907, as well as a traveling representative prior to his election as president in 1917. His early presidency was marked by a dispute with the Society's board of directors, in which four of its seven members accused him of autocratic behavior and sought to reduce his powers. The resulting leadership crisis divided the Bible Student community and contributed to the loss of one-seventh of adherents by 1919 and thousands more by 1931.[4][5][6] Rutherford and seven other Watch Tower executives were imprisoned in 1918 after charges were laid over the publication of The Finished Mystery, a book deemed seditious for its opposition to World War I.[7][8]
Rutherford introduced many organizational and doctrinal changes that helped shape the beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses.[9][10] He imposed a centralized administrative structure on the worldwide Bible Student movement, which he later called a theocracy, requiring all adherents to distribute literature via door to door preaching and to provide regular reports of their activity.[11][12] He also instituted training programs for public speaking as part of their weekly meetings for worship. He established 1914 as the date of Christ's invisible return, asserted that Christ died on a tree rather than a cross,[13][14] formulated the current Witness concept of Armageddon as God's war on the wicked, and reinforced the belief that the start of Christ's millennial reign was imminent. He condemned the observance of traditional celebrations such as Christmas and birthdays, the saluting of national flags and the singing of national anthems. He introduced the name "Jehovah's witnesses" in 1931 and the term "Kingdom Hall" for houses of worship in 1935.[15]
He wrote twenty-one books and was credited by the Society in 1942 with the distribution of almost 400 million books and booklets.[16] Despite significant decreases during the 1920s, overall membership increased more than sixfold by the end of Rutherford's 25 years as president.[17][18]

Contents
  [hide] 1 Early life 1.1 Law career
2 Watch Tower Society 2.1 Board of directors
2.2 Presidency dispute
3 The Finished Mystery 3.1 Imprisonment and release
4 Reorganization 4.1 Administrative changes
4.2 Doctrinal changes
5 Character and attitudes
6 Personal life
7 Death and burial
8 References
9 Bibliography
10 External links

Early life[edit]
Rutherford was born on November 8, 1869 to James Calvin Rutherford and Leonora Strickland and raised in near-poverty in a Baptist farm family. Some sources list his place of birth as Boonville, Missouri, but according to his death certificate he was born in Versailles, Missouri.[19][20] Rutherford developed an interest in law from the age of 16.[21] Although his father discouraged this interest, he allowed Rutherford to go to college under the condition that he pay for a laborer to take his place on the family farm. Rutherford took out a loan[22] and helped to pay for his law studies by working as a door-to-door encyclopedia salesman and court stenographer.[23]
Law career[edit]
Rutherford spent two years as a judge's intern, became an official court reporter at age 20, and was admitted to the Missouri bar in May 1892 at age 22.[23] He became a trial lawyer for a law firm[24] and later served for four years in Boonville as a public prosecutor. He campaigned briefly for Democratic presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan.[25] He was appointed as a Special Judge in the Eighth Judicial Circuit Court of Missouri,[23][26][27][28] sitting as a substitute judge at least once when a regular judge was unable to hold court.[22] As a result of this appointment he became known by the sobriquet "Judge" Rutherford. He was admitted to the New York bar in 1909 and admitted to practice before the Supreme Court of the United States the same year.[29]
Watch Tower Society[edit]

 

 Joseph F. Rutherford
In 1894 Rutherford purchased the first three volumes of Charles Taze Russell's Millennial Dawn series of Bible study textbooks from two colporteurs who visited his office. Rutherford, who then viewed all religions as insincere, shallow and hypocritical, was struck by Russell's sincerity and his sentiments towards religion, which mirrored his own view.[30][31] Rutherford immediately wrote to the Watch Tower Society to express appreciation for the books.[32] He was baptized twelve years later and he and his wife began holding Bible classes in their home.[25] In 1907, he became legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society at its Pittsburgh headquarters, and from around that time began to give public talks as a "pilgrim" representative of the Society.[24] As Russell's health deteriorated, Rutherford represented him on trips to Europe[33] and in April 1915 he was deputized to speak at a major debate with Baptist preacher J. H. Troy over four nights in Los Angeles before an audience of 12,000,[34] debating various subjects, including the state of the dead, hellfire and Christ's Second Coming.[35] Rutherford wrote a pamphlet, A Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens, in defense of Russell[36] and served as chairman of the Bible Students' Los Angeles convention in September 1916.
Board of directors[edit]
By 1916 Rutherford had become one of the seven directors of the Watch Tower Society; when Russell died on October 31, 1916 he joined vice-President Alfred I. Ritchie and Secretary-Treasurer William E. Van Amburgh on a three-man executive committee that ran the Pennsylvania corporation until a new president was elected at the annual general meeting the following January.[37] He also joined a five-person editorial committee to run The Watch Tower from the December 15, 1916 issue. Russell's will, drawn up in 1907, had named the five people he wished to run the magazine after his death;[38] Rutherford appeared only on a second list of five alternative members to fill any vacancies that arose.[39]
Bible Student Alexander H. Macmillan, who served as an aide to the executive committee, later wrote that tensions at the Watch Tower Society headquarters mounted as the day for election of the Society's officers approached. He wrote: "A few ambitious ones at headquarters were holding caucuses here and there, doing a little electioneering to get their men in. However, Van Amburgh and I held a large number of votes. Many shareholders, knowing of our long association with Russell, sent their proxies to us to be cast for the one whom we thought best fitted for office."[40] Macmillan, who claimed he had declined an offer from an ailing Russell months earlier to accept the position of president after his death,[41] agreed with Van Amburgh that Rutherford was the best candidate. According to Macmillan, "Rutherford did not know what was going on. He certainly didn't do any electioneering or canvassing for votes, but I guess he was doing some worrying, knowing if he was elected he would have a big job on his hands ... There is no doubt in our minds that the Lord's will was done in this choice. It is certain that Rutherford himself had nothing to do with it."[42]
Presidency dispute[edit]
Main article: Watch Tower Society presidency dispute (1917)
On January 6, 1917, Rutherford, aged 47, was elected president of the Watch Tower Society, unopposed, at the Pittsburgh convention. By-laws passed by both the Pittsburgh convention and the board of directors stated that the president would be the executive officer and general manager of the Society, giving him full charge of its affairs worldwide.[43]
By June, four of the seven Watch Tower Society directors—Robert H. Hirsh, Alfred I. Ritchie, Isaac F. Hoskins and James D. Wright— had decided they had erred in endorsing Rutherford's expanded powers of management, claiming Rutherford had become autocratic.[44] In June, Hirsch attempted to rescind the new by-laws and reclaim the board's authority from the president.[45] Rutherford later claimed he had by then detected a conspiracy among the directors to seize control of the society.[46] In July, Rutherford gained a legal opinion from a Philadelphia corporation lawyer that none of his opposers were legally directors of the society. The Watch Tower Society's official 1959 account of its history claimed the legal advice given to the ousted directors confirmed that given to Rutherford;[47] however, the pamphlets produced by the expelled board members at the time indicated that their legal advice, acquired from several attorneys, disagreed with Rutherford's.[48][49] On July 12, Rutherford filled what he claimed were four vacancies on the board, appointing Macmillan and Pennsylvania Bible Students W. E. Spill, J. A. Bohnet and George H. Fisher as directors.[50] Between August and November the society and the four ousted directors published a series of pamphlets, with each side accusing the other of ambitious and reckless behavior. The former directors also claimed Rutherford had required all headquarters workers to sign a petition supporting him and threatened dismissal for any who refused to sign.[51] The former directors left the Brooklyn headquarters on August 8.[52] On January 5, 1918, shareholders returned Rutherford to office.
The controversy fractured the Bible Student movement and some congregations split into opposing groups loyal either to Rutherford or those he had expelled.[52][53] By mid-1919 about one in seven Bible Students had chosen to leave rather than accept his leadership,[54] and over the following decade they helped formed other groups including the Standfast Movement, the Layman's Home Missionary Movement, the Dawn Bible Students Association, the Pastoral Bible Institute, the Elijah Voice Movement, the Concordat Publishing Concern, and the Eagle Society.[55]
The Finished Mystery[edit]
In late 1916 Fisher and another prominent Bible Student at the Brooklyn headquarters, Clayton J. Woodworth, sought the Executive Committee's approval to produce a book about the prophecies of the books of Revelation and Ezekiel based primarily on Russell's writings.[56] Work on the book, The Finished Mystery, proceeded without the knowledge of the full Board of Directors and Editorial Committee[57][58] and was released by Rutherford to headquarters staff on July 17, 1917, the day he announced the appointment of the four replacement directors.

 

 "The Finished Mystery"—vol. 7 of "Studies in the Scriptures"
The book, which was misleadingly labeled as the posthumous seventh volume of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures,[59][60] was denounced by Rutherford's opponents, but became a best-seller and was translated into six languages and serialized in The Watch Tower.[61] Expecting God's Kingdom to establish rule on earth and for the saints to be raised to heaven in 1918,[61] Rutherford wrote in January of that year: "The Christian looks for the year to bring the full consummation of the church's hopes."[62] He embarked on a vast advertising campaign to expose the "unrighteousness" of religions and their alliances with "beastly" governments, expanding on claims in The Finished Mystery that patriotism was a delusion and murder.[63][64] The campaign attracted the attention of governments and on February 12, 1918 the book was banned by the Canadian government for what a Winnipeg newspaper described as "seditious and antiwar statements"[65] On February 24 in Los Angeles Rutherford gave a talk entitled "The World Has Ended—Millions Now Living May Never Die" (subsequent talks in the series were renamed, "Millions Now Living Will Never Die")[66][67] in which he attacked the clergy, declaring: "As a class, according to the Scriptures, the clergymen are the most reprehensible men on earth for the great war that is now afflicting mankind."[65] Three days later the Army Intelligence Bureau seized the Society's Los Angeles offices and confiscated literature.
Imprisonment and release[edit]
In early May 1918 US Attorney General Thomas Watt Gregory condemned The Finished Mystery as "one of the most dangerous examples of ... propaganda ... a work written in extremely religious language and distributed in enormous numbers".[68] Warrants were issued for the arrest of Rutherford and seven other Watch Tower directors, who were charged under the 1917 Espionage Act of attempting to cause insubordination, disloyalty, refusal of duty in the armed forces and obstructing the recruitment and enlistment service of the U.S. while it was at war.[64] On June 21 seven of them, including Rutherford, were sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment. Rutherford feared his opponents would gain control of the Society in his absence. On January 2, 1919 he learned he had been re-elected president at the Pittsburgh convention the day before, convincing him that God wanted him in the position.[69][70] In March 1919 the directors were released on bail after an appeals court ruled they had been wrongly convicted; in May 1920 the government announced that all charges had been dropped.[71]
Reorganization[edit]
Administrative changes[edit]
Following his release from prison, Rutherford began a major reorganization of Bible Student activities. At a May, 1919 convention in Ohio he announced the publication of a new magazine, The Golden Age (later renamed Awake!). Because Russell's will had decreed the Society should publish no other periodicals[72] the new magazine was at first published by "Woodworth, Hudgings & Martin", with a Manhattan (rather than Brooklyn) address.[73] Within months Bible Students were organized to distribute it door-to-door.[72] He expanded the Society's printing facilities, revived the colporteur work and in 1920 introduced the requirement for weekly reports of Bible Students' preaching activity.[74][75] He expanded and reorganized overseas branch offices[76] in what he regarded as a "cleansing" and "sifting" work.[77]
Beginning with an eight-day convention at Cedar Point, Ohio, in September 1922 Rutherford, launched a series of major international conventions under the theme "Advertise the King and Kingdom", attracting crowds of up to 20,000.[78] Audiences were urged to "herald the message far and wide".[79] He stressed that the primary duty of all Bible Students was to become "publicity agents" in fulfillment of Matthew 24:14, especially in the form of door-to-door evangelism with the Society's publications.[80][81] In 1928 Rutherford began to teach that the Cedar Point convention and the events resulting from it fulfilled the prophecy of the 1290 days at Daniel 12:11.[82][83]
In 1920, Rutherford published a booklet, Millions Now Living Will Never Die, and a year later published his first hardcover book, The Harp of God. This was followed by a further nineteen hardcover books, each with one-word titles, such as Creation (1927), Jehovah (1934) and Children (1941). His publications reached a total printing of 36 million copies.[84] In 1925 he gained full control over what doctrines would be taught in Watch Tower Society publications, overruling the refusal by the five-man Editorial Committee to publish his article, "Birth of the Nation",[85] which contained significant doctrinal changes.[86] Rutherford later claimed Satan had "tried to prevent the publication of that article ... but failed in that effort";[87] In 1927 the Watch Tower Society ceased printing of Russell's Studies in the Scriptures.[88] The Editorial Committee was dissolved in 1931, after which Rutherford wrote every leading article in The Watch Tower until his death.[89] The 1933 Watch Tower Society Yearbook observed that the demise of the Editorial Committee indicated "that the Lord himself is running his organization".[90]
Rutherford expanded his means of spreading the Watch Tower message in 1924 with the start of 15-minute radio broadcasts, initially from WBBR, based on Staten Island, and eventually via a network of as many as 480 radio stations.[91] A 1931 talk was broadcast throughout North America, Australia and France, but his attacks on the clergy resulted in both the NBC and BBC radio networks banning his broadcasts.[92]
In 1928 Rutherford began to abolish the system of electing elders by congregational voting, dismissing them as "haughty" and "lazy", and finally asserting in 1932 that electing elders was unscriptural.[93][94] He impressed on elders the need to obey the Society's "regulations", "instructions" and "directions" without complaint.[95] Service directors, who reported back to Brooklyn, were appointed in each congregation and a weekly "service meeting" introduced to meeting programs.[96] In 1933 Rutherford claimed that abolishing elective elders was a fulfillment of the prophecy of 2300 days at Daniel 8:13–14, and that God's sanctuary (the Watch Tower Society) was thereby cleansed.[97]
At a 1931 Bible Student assembly in Columbus, Ohio Rutherford proposed a new name for the organization, Jehovah's witnesses, to differentiate them from the proliferation of other groups that followed Russell's teachings.[91] Bible Students who opposed or abandoned Rutherford to form new groups were increasingly described as the "evil servant class" by The Watchtower, which said it was wrong to pray for those who were "unfaithful".[98][99] Four years later the term "Kingdom Hall" was introduced for the local meeting place of congregations.[100]
In 1937, the door-to-door preaching program was extended to formally include "back calls" on interested people and Witnesses were urged to start one-hour Bible studies in the homes of householders.[101][102] In the late 1930s, he advocated the use of "sound cars" and portable phonographs with which talks by Rutherford were played to passersby and householders.[101]
In 1938 he introduced the term "theocracy" to describe the religion's system of government, with Consolation explaining: "The Theocracy is at present administered by the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, of which Judge Rutherford is the president and general manager."[103] "Zone servants" (now known as circuit overseers) were appointed to supervise congregations. In a Watchtower article Rutherford declared the need for congregations to "get in line" with the changed structure.[104][105]
By 1942, the year of his death, worldwide attendance at the annual Memorial of Christ's death was 140,450 though his restructuring of the Bible Student community coincided with a dramatic loss of followers during the 1920s and 1930s. Worldwide attendance of the annual Memorial of Christ's death fell from 90,434 in 1925[106] to 17,380 in 1928.[107] Memorial attendance figures did not surpass 90,000 again until 1940.[107] Author Tony Wills, who analyzed attendance and "field worker" statistics, suggests it was the "more dedicated" Bible Students who quit through the 1920s, to be replaced by newcomers in larger numbers, although Rutherford dismissed the loss of the original Bible Students as the Lord "shaking out" the unfaithful.[108][109] In the 1942 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, Rutherford wrote that the year's achievements "would, on the face of it, show that the Theocratic witness work on earth is about done".[110][111]
Doctrinal changes[edit]
In July 1917, Rutherford had The Finished Mystery published as a seventh volume of the Studies in the Scriptures series. The volume, though written by Fisher and Woodworth, was advertised as Russell's "posthumous work" and "last legacy"[112][113] but contained several interpretations and viewpoints not espoused by Russell,[114][115] including an urging of all Bible Students to cast judgment upon Christendom and its clergy, the adoption of new dates for the fulfillment of particular prophecies, a claim that salvation is tied to membership within the Watch Tower Society, as well as shunning and censuring any who reject the interpretations given in the volume or related articles in The Watch Tower magazine.

 

 "Millions Now Living Will Never Die" contains some of the earliest doctrinal changes
 

 Newspaper advertisement for Rutherford's "Millions" lecture.
In the February 1918 discourse "Millions Now Living Will Never Die" (printed in booklet form in May 1920) a revision of Russell's calculation of a "Jubilee type" was presented, changing it from 1875 to 1925,[116][117] despite Russell's rejection of such a change a few months prior to his death.[118] In October 1920 the Society published a new edition of Russell's 1881 Tabernacle Shadows of the Better Sacrifices. It included an appendix introducing many alterations or reinterpretations of Russell's original views on the death of Jesus and the role of Christ's followers in heaven as typified in the ceremonies of the Jewish tabernacle.[119]
At the 1922 Cedar Point convention Rutherford began teaching that Christ's reign had begun in 1914,[120] and not 1878 as Russell had taught.[121] Rutherford expanded on this view in the March 1, 1925 issue of The Watch Tower in the article "Birth of The Nation", which he later acknowledged "caused a real stir or shake-up within the ranks."[87] In 1927 he moved the date of the resurrection of the "sleeping saints" (all Christians who had died since Jesus' time) from 1878 to 1918[122][123] and as early as 1930 began to dismiss the year 1874 as the date for the invisible presence of Christ in favor of the year 1914.[124][125]
From 1925 he developed the view of the battle of Armageddon as a universal war waged by God rather than Russell's belief that it was the decline of human society into social, political and religious anarchy. Rutherford based his interpretations on the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Psalms as well as additional material from the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles.[126][127][128] An article in the January 1, 1926 Watch Tower introduced new emphasis on the importance of the name "Jehovah";[129] from 1929 Rutherford taught that the vindication of God's name—which would ultimately occur when millions of unbelievers were destroyed at Armageddon—was the primary doctrine of Christianity and more important than God's display of goodness or grace toward humankind.[130][131][132][133] In 1932 he published an interpretation of a passage in Ezekiel describing the attack on Jerusalem by Gog of Magog, in which he predicted an intensification of persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses that would culminate in God intervening on their behalf to begin the battle of Armageddon, which would destroy all opposers of God's organization.[110]
In 1926 he discredited Russell's teaching on the importance of Christian "character development" or personal "sanctification"[80][134][135] and a year later discarded the teaching that Russell had been the "faithful and wise servant" of Matthew 24:45–47, warning that the desire to revere men was a snare set by the Devil.[80][136] In May 1926 Rutherford released his book Deliverance at the Bible Student's convention in Kensington, England later interpreting the event as the fulfillment of the 1335 days of Daniel 12:12.[137]
In 1927, Christmas was declared to be of pagan origin, and the following year its celebration by Bible Students was condemned as supporting "Satan's organization".[138][139] Mother's Day was condemned in 1931,[140] with other holidays as well as birthdays officially renounced in subsequent years.[141][142]
In 1928 Rutherford discarded Russell's teaching that the natural Jews would be restored to Palestine and return to God's favor, despite having declared ten years earlier that prophecies of their restoration were already being fulfilled with the British takeover of Palestine from Turkey during World War I.[143] He denied there was a role for Jews in God's Kingdom arrangement and by 1933 he had reversed Russell's earlier teaching, claiming that prominent Jewish business leaders were "arrogant, self-important and extremely selfish," and would gain no favored standing with God.[144] The teaching that God would restore the Jews to Palestine was discontinued around the same time.[145]
Russell's teaching that the Great Pyramid of Giza was built under God's direction[146] was overturned in 1928, when Rutherford asserted that it had been built under the direction of Satan for the purpose of deceiving God's people in the last days.[147][148] The announcement prompted further defections among long-time Bible Students.[149][150]
In 1930, Rutherford published a systematic reinterpretation of the book of Revelation.[151] Many of the symbols recorded in the book were applied to events following 1918, specifically to Watch Tower conventions held in the years 1922 through 1928.[152] These reinterpretations reflected both a wholesale rejection of his own earlier views as well as the historicist interpretations of Pastor Russell.[153][154][155]
At a Washington, D.C. convention in 1935, Rutherford rejected Russell's teaching that the "great company" of Revelation 7:9 was a "secondary spiritual class" composed of millions of Christians who would be resurrected to heaven apart from the 144,000 "elect", and instead argued that the "great multitude", the "sheep" of Matthew 25 and the "Jonadabs" of 2 Kings chapter 10 all picture the people who could potentially survive Armageddon and receive everlasting human life on earth if they became Jehovah's Witnesses before it began.[156][157]
In 1935, Rutherford objected to U.S. state laws requiring school students to salute the flag as a means of instilling patriotism; in the 1936 Yearbook he declared that baptized Jehovah's Witnesses who did salute the flag were breaking their covenant with God and were thus "guilty of death".[158] In 1940, children in 43 states were expelled for refusing to salute the flag and the Watch Tower Society took most cases to court, with Rutherford personally leading the unsuccessful case of Minersville School District v. Gobitis. Controversy over the flag salute issue escalated and mob attacks became prevalent in many U.S. states until 1943 when the court overruled its previous decision in the case of West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette.[159] A U.S. law magazine noted how Jehovah's Witnesses had helped shape the course of constitutional law, remarking: "Through almost constant litigation this organization had made possible an ever-increasing list of precedents concerning the application of the 14th amendment to freedom of speech and religion".[160]
In 1936, Rutherford rejected the belief that Jesus had been executed on a Roman cross, in favor of an upright stake or "tree."[161]
Character and attitudes[edit]

 

 Rutherford with Cadillac V-16 from the Watchtower publication The Messenger (1931)
Biographers describe Rutherford as tall and solidly built with a senatorial demeanor,[162] and a strong booming voice that helped make him a powerful orator.[163][164] In 1917, The New York Times stated that Rutherford "has a reputation as an eloquent, forceful speaker".[26] Watch Tower Society literature states that his personality contrasted strongly with that of his predecessor. One Witness history book says that while Russell was kind, warm and tactful, Rutherford "was warm and generous toward his associates but he was also a brusque and direct type of person, and his legal background and experiences in early life gave him a directness in his approach to problems in dealing with his brothers that caused some to take offense."[165] Another Watch Tower Society account says he did not hide his feelings, adding, "His bluntness, even when spoken in kindness, was sometimes misunderstood."[166] Fellow Watch Tower Society director A. H. Macmillan says Rutherford "spoke as simply and directly to the people as he knew how, and he was an extremely forthright man. He was thoroughly convinced that what he had to say was the truth and that it was a matter of life and death."[167] Macmillan added, "He would never tolerate anything that would be contrary to what he clearly understood the Bible to teach. He was so strict about that, he would permit nothing that would seem to show a compromise when it came to an issue of the truth."[168] Author Tony Wills describes him as charitable and generous, and says his sympathy for the poor and oppressed was exceeded only by his hatred for the rich, the oppressors.[164] He also notes that he was a dynamic, impatient extrovert.[169] Other authors also address Rutherford's abrasiveness: James Penton describes him as blunt and moody with an explosive temper,[170] with "a streak of self-righteousness which caused him to regard anyone who opposed him as of the Devil",[171] while Alan Rogerson notes that he was a "dogmatic and insensitive person, obsessed with his own self-importance."[172]
Rutherford's confrontation with four Watch Tower Society directors who opposed him in 1917 highlighted both the forcefulness of his personality and his determination to fight for what he believed was right. Penton claims Rutherford played "hard-fisted church politics"[173] and Rogerson accuses Rutherford of using The Watchtower as a propaganda medium to attack his opposers in what was effectively a battle for his position as president.[6] At the heart of his opponents' complaints was his "autocratic" behavior as he strove to "exercise complete management of the Society and its affairs."[174] Penton similarly describes Rutherford's actions in his first year of presidency—including his appointment of new directors, refusal to allow the Society's accounts to be examined, and his unilateral decision to publish The Finished Mystery—as high-handed and secretive.[175] In contrast, Rutherford claimed, "It was my duty to use the power the Lord had put into my hands to support the interests of the shareholders and all others interested in the Truth throughout the world ... to be unfaithful to them would be unfaithful to the Lord."[176] Macmillan, who supported Rutherford throughout the crisis, claimed the president was extremely patient and "did everything that he could to help his opposers see their mistake, holding a number of meetings with them, trying to reason with them and show them how contrary their course was to the Society's charter".[168]

 

 A 1940 Rutherford booklet "exposing" a Catholic campaign of mob violence against Jehovah's Witnesses
According to Wills, Rutherford emerged from prison in 1919 bitter against the world and the collusion he saw between the clergy and military that had secured his imprisonment. Soon after his release he coined the term "Satan's organization" to refer to this supposed conspiracy.[177] In Watchtower articles Rutherford was similarly scathing towards big business, politics and the League of Nations.[178] Rogerson describes Rutherford's attitude towards the clergy—his avowed enemies—as "unadulterated hatred".[71] His attacks on clergymen, particularly those of the Catholic Church, from the late 1920s were strong enough to attract a ban on his broadcasts by the NBC radio network, which condemned his "rabid attack upon organized religion and the clergy".[179] He also applied criticizing terms to those who had deserted Watch Tower ranks, calling them the "evil servant".[180] He urged readers to view with contempt anyone who had "openly rebelled against God's order or commandments"[181] and also described elective elders of the 1930s who refused to submit to Watch Tower Society administrative changes as "despicable".[182]
Wills states that Rutherford seemed to relish his descriptions of how completely the wicked would be destroyed at Armageddon, dwelling at great length on prophecies of destruction. He claims that towards the close of his ministry Rutherford spent about half of each year's Watchtowers writing about Armageddon.[183]
According to Penton, Rutherford's austerity—evidenced by his distaste for Christmas, birthday parties and other popular customs[184] that were described as of pagan origin or that encouraged creature worship and were not to be observed[185]—led in turn to austerity becoming a part of Witness life. In 1938, he directed that singing be dispensed with at congregation meetings;[186][187][188][189] singing was reinstated soon after his death.[190]
Rutherford's books and magazine articles reveal his strong views on "the proper place of women" in the church and society. In a 1931 book he linked the post-1919 rise of women's movements that encouraged equality of the sexes with satanic influence,[191] and claimed the custom of men tipping their hats to women or standing when a woman approached was a scheme of the devil to turn men from God and indicated an effeminate streak in men who practiced the custom.[186] Mother's Day was similarly described as part of a plan to turn people away from God.[192] In 1938 he urged adherents to delay marriage and child-bearing until after Armageddon,[193] which Wills claims prompted a strong community bias among Witnesses against marriage. Those who did marry, says Wills, were considered to be weak in faith.[194] At a 1941 convention in Missouri he quoted Rudyard Kipling's description of women as "a rag and a bone and a hank of hair".[186][195]
Former Jehovah's Witness and former Governing Body member Raymond Franz claimed there was no evidence Rutherford engaged in door-to-door ministry despite his assertion that it was a requirement and sacred duty of all Witnesses. Franz claimed to have heard Rutherford's associates say his responsibilities as president "do not permit his engaging in this activity".[196] Macmillan, however, related details of Rutherford's home preaching in 1905 or 1906 when he was baptized,[197] and a 1975 article quoted several Witnesses relating their experiences with Rutherford in the house-to-house ministry in the 1920s.[198] The official history of Jehovah's Witnesses also notes, "Rutherford personally shared with other conventioners as they engaged in the work of Kingdom proclamation from house to house."[199] On August 2, 1928 in a meeting with the Bible Student elders who had attended a general convention in Detroit, Michigan Rutherford listed his responsibilities and concluded "when I have attended to many other details, I have not had very much time to go from door to door."[200]
Authors William Whalen and James Penton have claimed that Rutherford was to Russell what Brigham Young was to Mormon prophet Joseph Smith. Penton contends that both Russell and Smith were capable religious leaders but naive visionaries, while Rutherford and Young were "hard-bitten pragmatists who gave a degree of permanency to the movements they dominated".[201]
Personal life[edit]

 

Beth Sarim was built in San Diego, California in 1929. Rutherford died at the property in 1942.
Rutherford married Mary Malcolm Fetzer of Boonville, Missouri on December 31, 1891. Their only child, Malcolm Cleveland, was born on November 10, 1892.[202] The couple separated after Joseph Rutherford became president of the Watch Tower Society.[156] Mary remained an active member of the Jehovah's Witnesses until becoming confined to her home in the years before her death in 1962 at age 93.[203]
Rutherford had reportedly lost the use of one lung from pneumonia suffered during his imprisonment in 1918 and 1919; finding New York's winter weather "impossible", Rutherford was encouraged by a doctor to "spend as much time as possible" in a more favorable climate.[204] In 1929, a residence named Beth Sarim (literally, House of Princes) was constructed at San Diego, California for Rutherford's use,[205][206] initially as winter accommodation and later as a full-time residence.[203][207] He died at the property in 1942. The villa was sold in 1948, with The Watchtower declaring, "It had fully served its purpose and was now only serving as a monument quite expensive to keep."[208]
The standard of Rutherford's accommodation and his personal conduct attracted criticism from some Bible Students and Jehovah's Witnesses in the 1930s. Walter F. Salter, the Society's former branch manager in Canada, wrote a public letter to Rutherford in 1937, the month he was expelled from the religion, claiming that Rutherford had exclusive use of "luxurious" and "expensive" residences (in Brooklyn, Staten Island, Germany, and San Diego), as well as two Cadillacs[209][210][211] and alleged that on more than one occasion he had purchased for Rutherford cases of whiskey, brandy, beer and other liquors, and 'go from "drink to drink"'.[212] In July 1939 Olin R. Moyle, legal counsel for the Society, wrote an open letter of resignation to the president, in which he complained about behavior of some members of the Watch Tower Society, including Rutherford himself, that he considered excessive and inappropriate. Moyle mentioned California when discussing "the difference between the accommodations furnished to you, and your personal attendants, compared with those furnished to some of your brethren." Moyle also accused Rutherford of "unkind treatment of the staff, outbursts of anger, discrimination and vulgar language" and condemned his allowing the "glorification of alcohol" at Bethel.[213][214][215] Penton notes that Moyle was a "teetotaller" and "puritanical", but claims Rutherford's drinking habits were "notorious" and cites unnamed former Brooklyn Bethel workers who told of occasional difficulties in getting Rutherford to the podium to give public talks due to inebriation.[216]
Death and burial[edit]
About age 70, Rutherford underwent several medical treatments for cancer of the colon.[217] This included an operation on November 5, 1941 some two months before his death which found "carcinoma of the rectal sigmoid" and was given less than six months to live.[20] Rutherford died at Beth Sarim on January 8, 1942 at the age of 72.[218] Cause of death was "uraemia due to carcinoma of the rectum due to pelvic metastasis."[20]
A Watch Tower Society staff member said of the announcement of Rutherford's death, "It was at noontime when the family was assembled for lunch. ... The announcement was brief. There were no speeches. No one took the day off to mourn. Rather, we went back to the factory and worked harder than ever."[217]
Rutherford's burial was delayed for three-and-a-half months due to legal proceedings arising from his desire to be buried at Beth Sarim, which he had previously expressed to three close advisers from Brooklyn headquarters.[219][220] According to Consolation, "Judge Rutherford looked for the early triumph of 'the King of the East', Christ Jesus, now leading the host of heaven, and he desired to be buried at dawn facing the rising sun, in an isolated part of the ground which would be administered by the princes, who should return from their graves."[221] Based on his claims that resurrected biblical characters would live at Beth Sarim, Rutherford concluded that it was appropriate that his bones be buried on the property.[222]
The legal problem arose because Beth Sarim was not a legally zoned cemetery.[223] Witnesses collected more than 14,000 signatures for two petitions—one supporting his burial at Beth Sarim, another for a second preferred site on a nearby Watch Tower Society property named Beth-Shan—that Rutherford's dying wish might be granted.[224] Consolation condemned San Diego County officials for their refusal to grant a permit for Rutherford's burial at either property, stating "It was not the fate of the bones which they decided, but their own destiny. Nor is their blood on anyone else's head, because they were told three times that to fight against God, or to tamper with His servant's bones even, would bring upon them the condemnation of the Lord. ... So their responsibility is fixed, and they followed the course of Satan."[225][226][227]
Speculation that Rutherford was secretly buried at Beth Sarim has been called "private rumor", 'frequently disproven', and "myth".[228][229][230] The May 4, 1942 issue of Time magazine noted Rutherford's burial at Rossville, New York, on Staten Island;[231] a private burial plot for Watch Tower branch volunteers is on Woodrow Road.[232][233] In 2002, a caretaker at the immediately adjoining graveyard answered an inquiry about Watch Tower's graveyard by noting, "I couldn't tell you who is buried on it because it has absolutely no markers or headstones".[234]
Rutherford was succeeded by Nathan Homer Knorr as president of the Watch Tower Society.
References[edit]
1.^ Leo P. Chall, Sociological Abstracts, vol 26 issues 1–3, "Sociology of Religion", 1978, p. 193 col 2: "Rutherford, through the Watch Tower Society, succeeded in changing all aspects of the sect from 1919 to 1932 and created Jehovah's Witnesses—a charismatic offshoot of the Bible student community."
2.^ "The Embryonic State of a Religious Sect's Development: The Jehovah's Witnesses" Sociological Yearbook of Religion in Britain, ed. Michael Hill, 1972, issue 5 pp 11–12: "Joseph Franklin Rutherford succeeded to Russell's position as President of Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society, but only at the expense of antagonizing a large proportion of the Watch Towers subscribers. Nevertheless, he persisted in moulding the Society to suit his own programme of activist evangelism under systematic central control, and he succeeded in creating the administrative structure of the present-day sect of Jehovah's Witnesses."
3.^ The Twentieth century, vol 153, 1953 p. 14: "This latter phenomenon, perhaps the most widely spread politico-religious movement at the present time, is linked, as are so many, with a source in America, in this case Judge Rutherford, the New York founder of Jehovah's Witnesses."
4.^ P.S.L. Johnson, The Present Truth and Herald of Christ's Epiphany, April 1927, p. 66: "Since the Fall of 1923 ... from 20,000 to 30,000 Truth people the world over have left the Society."
5.^ Penton 1997, p. 50
6.^ a b Rogerson 1969, p. 37
7.^ "Postwar Enlargement of the Theocratic Organization", The Watchtower, July 15, 1950, p. 217
8.^ Beckford 1975, p. 24
9.^ Penton 1997, p. 75
10.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 64
11.^ "Testing and Sifting in Modern Times", The Watchtower, June 15, 1987, p. 17
12.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 53
13.^ Riches, by J.F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1936, p. 27, "Jesus was crucified, not on a cross... Jesus was crucified by nailing his body to a tree. ...(Deuteronomy 21:22,23) ... (Galatians 3:13) ... Acts 5:30."
14.^ "Flashes of Light—Great and Small", The Watchtower, May 15, 1995, p. 20.
15.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p. 319
16.^ Consolation, May 27, 1942, p. 6. It is not clear from this publication whether this included the distribution of Russell's earlier writings.
17.^ "Part 1—United States of America", 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 94, "...earthwide report shows that the Memorial of Jesus Christ’s death on April 5, 1917, was attended by 21,274.
18.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, pp. 312–313: Memorial attendance figures in Rutherford's final years were 98,076 (1941) and 140,450 (1942)
19.^ Penton 1997, p. 47.
20.^ a b c Dept. of Public Health, San Diego California, Joseph Franklin Rutherford, Certificate of Death issued February 6, 1942
21.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 34.
22.^ a b Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1975, p. 81
23.^ a b c Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p. 67
24.^ a b "Modern History of Jehovah’s Witnesses", Watchtower, March 15, 1955, p. 175.
25.^ a b Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Visions of Glory – A History and Memory of Jehovah's Witnesses, Simon & Schuster, 1978, chapter 6.
26.^ a b The New York Times, January 17, 1919, Section I, p. 9, As Retrieved 2010-03-02
27.^ "Religion: Jehovah's Witness", Time magazine, June 10, 1935, Online
28.^ Biographies of Rutherford in the March 15, 1955 Watchtower and 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses state that his appointment as Special Judge was in the Fourteenth Judicial Circuit.
29.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1975, p. 83
30.^ Wills 2007, p. 131 Wills (p. 131) claims Rutherford had never doubted God's existence, but Wills does not cite a source for that claim.
31.^ The Watchtower (October 1, 1997, p. 6) cites a 1913 newspaper interview wherein Rutherford describes becoming an atheist after a Baptist minister claimed Rutherford's wife Mary would go to Hell because she had not been baptized.
32.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p. 67
33.^ "British Branch report", Watch Tower, January 15, 1915, p. 26, Reprints 5616.
34.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 30
35.^ Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1991, p. 73.
36.^ "Judge Rutherford's Spicy Defense", Watch Tower, May 1, 1915, p. 130. R5685.
37.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p. 647
38.^ Russell's Last Will and Testament, The Watch Tower, December 15, 1916.
39.^ Penton 1997, p. 48
40.^ Macmillan 1957, p. 68
41.^ Macmillan 1957, p. 70
42.^ Macmillan 1957, p. 71
43.^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 5,6
44.^ Pierson et al 1917, p. 4
45.^ Rutherford August 1917, p. 12
46.^ Rutherford August 1917, pp. 22–23
47.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose (1959) p. 71, col. 2
48.^ Light After Darkness (September 1, 1917) p. 11
49.^ Facts for Shareholders (November 15, 1917) p. 14
50.^ Rutherford August 1917, pp. 14,15
51.^ Pierson et al 1917, p. 9
52.^ a b Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p. 68
53.^ Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) identifies opposing sides as "those loyal to the Society and those who were easy prey to the smooth talk of the opposers" (p. 68). Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses (1975) dismisses the four ousted directors as "rebellious individuals who claimed to be board members" (p. 87) and men who "ambitiously sought to gain administrative control of the Society" (p. 92).
54.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1975, pp. 93–94
55.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 39
56.^ Wills 2007, p. 97
57.^ Pierson et al 1917, p. 11
58.^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watchtower. 1959. p. 70.
59.^ Lawson, John D., American State Trials, vol 13, Thomas Law Book Company, 1921, p. viii: "After his death and after we were in the war they issued a seventh volume of this series, entitled "The Finished Mystery," which, under the guise of being a posthumous work of Pastor Russell, included an attack on the war and an attack on patriotism, which were not written by Pastor Russell and could not have possibly been written by him."
60.^ Crompton, Robert. Counting the Days to Armageddon. Cambridge: James Clarke & Co. 1996. pp 84–85: "One of Rutherford's first actions as president ... was, without reference either to his fellow directors or to the editorial committee which Russell had nominated in his will, to commission a seventh volume of Studies in the Scriptures. Responsibility for preparing this volume was given to two of Russell's close associates, George H. Fisher and Clayton J. Woodworth. On the face of it, their brief was to edit for publication the notes left by Russell ... and to draw upon his published writings ... It is obvious ... that it was not in any straightforward sense the result of editing Russell's papers, rather it was in large measure the original work of Woodworth and Fisher at the behest of the new president."
61.^ a b Rogerson 1969, p. 40
62.^ Watch Tower, October 1, 1917, January 1, 1918.
63.^ Wills 2007, p. 100
64.^ a b Rogerson 1969, p. 41
65.^ a b Macmillan 1957, p. 85
66.^ The initial delivery was entitled "The World Has Ended—Millions Now Living May Never Die". See:
 "Noteworthy Events in the Modern-day History of Jehovah’s Witnesses", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom", 1993 Watch Tower, p. 719, "1918 The discourse “The World Has Ended—Millions Now Living May Never Die” is first delivered, on February 24, in Los Angeles, California. On March 31, in Boston, Massachusetts, the talk is entitled “The World Has Ended—Millions Now Living Will Never Die” [emphasis added]
67.^ Los Angeles Morning Tribune, February 25, 1918, as recorded in Faith on the March by A. H. Macmillan, 1957, p. 86
68.^ Macmillan 1957, p. 89
69.^ Macmillan 1957, p. 106
70.^ Macmillan 1957, pp. 105,106
71.^ a b Rogerson 1969, p. 44
72.^ a b Penton 1997, p. 56
73.^ The Golden Age, volume 1, number 1, October 1, 1919, cover, As Retrieved 2010-02-16
74.^ Rogerson 1969, pp. 53,54
75.^ "Annual report for 1920", The Watchtower, December 15, 1920, "At the beginning of the fiscal year there were only 225 active colporteurs in the field. The number has now increased to 350, all of whom are devoting their entire time to the service ... In addition to the colporteurs there are reported to this office 8,052 class workers."
76.^ Penton 1997, p. 57
77.^ Rogerson 1969, pp. 52,53
78.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 54
79.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1975, p. 131
80.^ a b c Penton 1997, p. 60
81.^ Watchtower March 1, 1925 p. 72 col 2
82.^ Watchtower December 15, 1929 pp 371–77: "Briefly, then, these prophecies and the dates of their fulfilment [sic] are as follows, to wit: The fixed "time of the end" is October 1, 1914 A.D. The 1260-day period ended in April, 1918. The 1290-day period ended September, 1922. The 1335-day period of blessedness began May, 1926, and goes on for ever."
83.^ The Harp of God, 1928 edition
84.^ Penton 1997, p. 58
85.^ Watchtower, March 1, 1925 pp 67–74. In the content list on the cover the article is entitled Birth of a Nation, but the article itself on page 67 is entitled Birth of the Nation
86.^ Penton 1997, p. 59
87.^ a b Watchtower, July 1, 1938, p. 201.
88.^ WTB&TS, "God's Kingdom of a Thousand Years Has Approached" (1973) p. 347
89.^ Wills 2006, p. 121
90.^ Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1933, p. 11.
91.^ a b Rogerson 1969, p. 55
92.^ Wills, pp. 149–151
93.^ Penton, p. 64
94.^ Wills 2006, pp. 177–179
95.^ Wills 2006, p. 176
96.^ Wills 2006, p. 175
97.^ Watchtower July 15, 1933 pp. 214-15: "Beginning to count from the transgression resulting by reason of the League of Nations, and the giving of notice, which must begin May 25, 1926, the twenty-three hundred days, or six years, four months, and twenty days, would end October 15, 1932...What, then, took place at the end of the twenty-three-hundred-day period? The Watchtower, issues of August 15 and September 1, 1932, brought before God's people the Scriptural proof that the office of "elective elder", chosen or selected by vote of creatures, does not Scripturally exist, and that therefore the selection of elders by such means should end." In 1971 the Watchtower Society changed the interpretation ending the 2300 days in 1944 rather than 1932.
98.^ Wills 2006, pp. 167–172
99.^ Watchtower, February 15, 1933.
100.^ Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom chap. 20 p. 319, 721
101.^ a b Rogerson 1969, p. 57
102.^ "Testing and Sifting in Modern Times", The Watchtower, June 15, 1987, p. 18.
103.^ Consolation, September 4, 1940, p. 25, as cited by Penton, p. 61.
104.^ Wills 2006, p. 201
105.^ Watchtower, June 15, 1938.
106.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, p. 110
107.^ a b Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 312–313
108.^ Wills 2007, pp. 142, 146, 157–159
109.^ 1931 Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, p. 57.
110.^ a b Wills 2007, p. 223
111.^ Yearbook, 1942, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, p. 29.
112.^ The Finished Mystery, 1917, p. 2: "POSTHUMOUS WORK OF PASTOR RUSSELL His Last Legacy to the Dear Israel of God (Matt. 20:9)"
113.^ The Bible Students Monthly, December 1917, vol. 9 no. 9, p. 1: "The following article is extracted mainly from Pastor Russell's posthumous volume entitled "THE FINISHED MYSTERY," the 7th in the series of his STUDIES IN THE SCRIPTURES and published subsequent to his death... In this posthumous volume, which is called his "last legacy to the Christians of earth" is found a thorough exposition of every verse in the entire Book of Revelation."
114.^ Tony Mills, A People for His Name, 2007, pp 97–8: "While he keeps faithfully to Russell's comments in most cases, there are a few times when he goes beyond Russell's plainly stated interpretation. In some of the chapters of Revelation on which Russell left no comments his imagination wandered free. He ridicules John Wesley, whom Russell admired, and his Methodist movement. He calls Europeans "the most cruel, bloodthirsty, quarrelsome, rapacious people on earth," a thought Russell denied. He ridicules Calvinists by saying that they have "lost their manhood, reason and common sense." He ridicules politics, patriotism, religion and almost everything the world holds holy, without (as Russell was careful to do) presenting the good along with the bad."
115.^ Bible Students Tract Society, Notes and Comments on the Finished Mystery, Feb. 1919, pp 6–7: "Thus we have Bro. Woodworth's distinct statement that none of these interpretations of Revelation are Pastor Russell's, but another's [sic] (presumably his own)... Have Pastor Russell's interpretations been followed? To this we reply that in many cases they have not. On the contrary, entirely contradictory ones are frequently given."
116.^ The Time is at Hand, 1889, p. 183: "Reckoned from the beginning of the seventy years desolation under Babylon, the great cycle [50x50] ends with the year A.D. 1875."
117.^ Millions Now Living Will Never Die!, 1920, p.88 : "A simple calculation of these jubilees brings us to this important fact: Seventy jubilees of fifty years each would be a total of 3500 years. That period of time beginning 1575 before A.D. 1 of necessity would end in the fall of the year 1925."
118.^ The Watch Tower April 15, 1916 p. 127: "We cannot help it that many of the dear friends continue to tell what THE WATCH TOWER believes, and to misrepresent its teachings. Our kindest thought must be that they are not giving much heed to its teachings. Otherwise they would know from its columns that we are not looking forward to 1925, nor to any other date. As expressly stated in THE WATCH TOWER, we are simply going on, our last date or appointment having been passed more than a year ago...we have no different time in mind from the Scriptures on the subject and do not expect to have any."
119.^ Tabernacle Shadows of the Better Sacrifices, 1920, Appendix of Notes pp 133–155: "Thirty-nine years have passed since the publication of this little booklet; and during that time some of the teachings herein contained have come to be seen in clearer light – even as the details of a mountain become more discernible the closer one draws to it. In harmony with these clearer understandings we suggest the following alterations in appendix form, leaving the text intact out of deference to the honored and beloved writer of the booklet."
120.^ Watchtower, December 15, 1922, p. 394.
121.^ "How Long, O Lord?", Zion's Watch Tower, January 1881.
122.^ Watchtower June 1, 1927 p. 166.
123.^ Light by J. F. Rutherford, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1930, p 226.
124.^ The Golden Age May 7, 1930 p. 503
125.^ The Golden Age March 14, 1934 p 380 "Prior to 1914 and years thereafter we thought that our Lord's return dated from 1874; and we took it for granted that the parousia or presence of our Lord dated from that time. An examination of the scriptures containing the word parousia shows that the presence of the Lord could not date prior to 1914."
126.^ Wills 2007, pp. 154,155
127.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 47
128.^ "Can This World’s Armageddon Be Avoided?", Watchtower, December 1, 1966, p. 730.
129.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p. 124
130.^ Wills 2007, pp. 181, 182
131.^ Penton 1997, p. 69
132.^ J.F. Rutherford, Prophecy, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1929, pp. 319, 328–333
133.^ J.F. Rutherford, Vindication, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, 1931, pp. 9–14, 65–68, 135.
134.^ Wills 2007, p. 143
135.^ "Character or Covenant – Which?", The Watchtower, May 1, 1926
136.^ Watchtower, January 1, 1927, p. 7.
137.^ Watchtower July 15, 1933 p. 214 col 2
138.^ The Golden Age, December 14, 1927, "The Origin of Christmas", pp 178–79
139.^ 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1974, p. 147
140.^ Vindication book 1, 1931, pp 158–60: "On the face of it the arrangement of "Mother's Day" seems harmless and calculated to do good. But the people are in ignorance of Satan's subtle hand in the matter, and that he is back of the movement, to turn the people away from God... Neither the man nor the woman should be worshiped for doing right, because such doing of right is their duty. Creature worship of any kind is wrong and an abomination in the sight of God."
141.^ George Chryssides, Historical Dictionary of Jehovah's Witnesses, 2008, p. 21
142.^ Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993, p. 199
143.^ Wills 2007, p. 38
144.^ J. F. Rutherford, Favored People, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, as cited by Wills, 2007, p. 129.
145.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 46
146.^ Thy Kingdom Come, pp. 309–376
147.^ The Messenger, August 5, 1928 p. 1: "When the Lord spoke of hiding his people in his secret place he was not talking about any chambers in the pyramid, built by the Devil himself."
148.^ The Watch Tower, November 15, 1928
149.^ Great Pyramid Passages, 1924, reprint by Portland Area Bible Students, 1988, pp i–xxxviii
150.^ The Messenger, August 5, 1928 p. 2: "It sure did set the tongues wagging at the Fair Grounds and resulted in another overhauling of the old trunk wherein are kept a few choice relics of what, until recently, we honestly believed the Bible teaches."
151.^ Light book 1 and 2, 1930
152.^ Light book 1, 1930, p. 106
153.^ The Finished Mystery, 1917
154.^ Gruss, p. 172
155.^ The Watch Tower, Nov 15, 1916, p. 343
156.^ a b Penton 1997, p. 72
157.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, p. 140
158.^ Yearbook, 1936, p. 22, "The saluting of or salutation to a flag means this: 'I depend on what the flag represents for my salvation. Those who know and serve God in spirit and in truth look to Jehovah God for salvation, and not to any man or any man-made organization. It therefore follows that the saluting of any flag by those who are in covenant with Jehovah God to do his will constitutes the breaking of that covenant with God, and such covenant breakers are guilty of death."
159.^ Wills 2007, pp. 214–224
160.^ American Bar Association's Bill of Rights Review, Vol 2, No.4, Summer 1942, p. 262.
161.^ Riches, 1936, p. 27: "Jesus was crucified, not on a cross of wood, such as is exhibited in many images and pictures, and which images are made and exhibited by men; Jesus was crucified by nailing his body to a tree."
162.^ Herbert H. Stroup, The Jehovah's Witnesses, Columbia University Press, 1945, p. 16.
163.^ Penton 1997, p. 47
164.^ a b Wills 2007, p. 131
165.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, pp. 68, 69
166.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1975, p. 83
167.^ Macmillan 1957, pp. 150,151
168.^ a b Macmillan 1957, p. 77
169.^ Wills 2007, p. 107
170.^ P.S.L. Johnson's Harvest Siftings Reviewed (1917, p.17) relates an incident in which an enraged Rutherford rushed at him in a confrontation in Brooklyn Bethel, grabbed at his arm and "almost jerked me off my feet". Johnson complains that in an earlier hearing of complaints against him, Rutherford treated him to "sneers, sarcasm and ridicule. His face expressed more contempt than that of any other face upon which I have ever looked."(p.14)
171.^ Penton 1997, pp. 47–48
172.^ Rogerson 1969, p. 35
173.^ Penton 1997, p. 51
174.^ Pierson et al 1917, pp. 3,4
175.^ Penton 1997, pp. 51, 53
176.^ Rutherford August 1917, p. 17
177.^ Wills 2007, p. 132
178.^ Wills 2007, pp. 131–138
179.^ Yearbook, 1930, p. 38
180.^ The term was drawn from the account of the "faithful servant" and "evil servant" of Matthew 24:45–51.
181.^ Watchtower, February 15, 1933, p. 55.
182.^ Watchtower, March 15, 1938, p.87
183.^ Wills 2007, p. 154
184.^ J.F.Rutherford, Vindication, Vol I, pp. 188, 189, as cited by Wills, p. 139.
185.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1975, p. 147
186.^ a b c Penton 1997, p. 66
187.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1959, p. 215
188.^ Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p. 241, "singing in local congregations was largely dispensed with in about 1938"
189.^ The Watchtower, May 1, 1938, p 139, "At all study meetings...the one presiding at the study might well, as a prelude to the meeting, briefly state God’s purpose which is now being performed... two minutes might well be devoted to such at the beginning of all meetings for study [by] the one presiding... A few words like the above pronounced at the beginning of the study would be far more beneficial than to occupy the same time in singing songs, which often express much that is out of harmony with the truth"
190.^ "Music’s Place in Modern Worship", The Watchtower, February 1, 1997, pp 26–27, "In 1938 singing at congregation meetings was largely dispensed with. However, the wisdom of following apostolic example and direction soon prevailed. At the 1944 district convention, F. W. Franz...announced the release of the Kingdom Service Song Book for use at the weekly service meetings."
191.^ J.F.Rutherford, Vindication, Vol I, pp. 155–159, as cited by Wills, p. 139.
192.^ J.F.Rutherford, Vindication, Vol I, pp. 155–157, as cited by Wills, p. 139.
193.^ Watchtower, November 15, 1938, p. 346.
194.^ Wills 2007, p. 138
195.^ Barbara Grizzuti Harrison, Visions of Glory – A History and Memory of Jehovah's Witnesses, Simon & Schuster, 1978, chapter 3.
196.^ Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, 2007, pp. 191–192
197.^ "Part 1—United States of America", 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1975 Watch Tower, p 83
198.^ "Part 2—United States of America", 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1975 Watch Tower, p 133
199.^ "Conventions Proof of Our Brotherhood", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993 Watch Tower, p 260
200.^ The Messenger, August 3, 1928 p. 5: "Frequently some elder says: "The president of the Society does not go from house to house selling books. Why should I?" ... When I have looked after the management of the work at headquarters with its many departments; when I have given attention to a voluminous mail; when I have managed thirty odd branch offices in different parts of the earth and kept in close touch with them by correspondence and examination of their reports, and given advice and counsel as to what shall be done; when I have given attention to may [sic] legal matters that have arisen against members of the Society by reason of the opposition of the enemy; when I have given counsel to the various parts of the radio work; when I have prepared copy for The Watch Tower and other publications; and occasionally written a book or booklet and followed its progress through the manufacturing thereof; and when I have attended to many other details, I have not had very much time to go from door to door."
201.^ Prof. William J. Whalen, Armageddon Around the Corner: A report on Jehovah's Witnesses, John Day, New York, 1962, as cited by Penton, pp. 75–76.
202.^ St. Paul Enterprise January 16, 1917 p. 1
203.^ a b "Advertise the King and the Kingdom! (1919–1941)", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993 Watch Tower, p 89
204.^ "Advertise the King and the Kingdom! (1919–1941)", Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, 1993 Watch Tower, p 75
205.^ "Beth-Sarim – Much Talked About House", The Messenger (Watchtower), July 25, 1931: 6, 8. (17MB)
206.^ 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1974 Watch Tower, p 194, "In time, a direct contribution was made for the purpose of constructing a house in San Diego for Brother Rutherford’s use."
207.^ New York Times Deeds San Diego Home To Kings of Israel; Judge Rutherford in the Interim Occupies the House and Drives the Cars March 19, 1930 p. 31
208.^ Watchtower, December 15, 1947, as cited by Proclaimers, 1993, p. 76.
209.^ Penton 1997, pp. 72,73
210.^ The Watchtower, May 15. 1937, p 159
211.^ Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich by M. James Penton, University of Toronto Press, 2004, p 368; though Salter's letter was dated "April 1, 1937", Penton writes, "Salter had broken with the Watch Tower Society and had been excommunicated from the Witness community at the time he wrote the letter."
212.^ Letter to Rutherford by Walter Salter, reproduced in Jehovah's Witnesses and the Third Reich: sectarian politics under persecution by M. James Penton, University of Toronto Press, 2004, pp. 365-7., "I, at your orders would purchase cases of whiskey at $60.00 a case, and cases of brandy and other liquors, to say nothing of untold cases of beer. A bottle or two of liquor would not do... [Rutherford] sends us out from door to door to face the enemy while he goes from 'drink to drink,' and tells us if we don't we are going to be destroyed."
213.^ Moyle letter to Rutherford, July 21, 1939.
214.^ Tony Wills (2007), A People For His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation, Lulu.com, pp. 202–204, ISBN 978-1-4303-0100-4
215.^ Society directors defended Rutherford in an October 1939 Watchtower article, accusing Moyle of lies and "wicked slander" and claimed he was a "Judas" trying to cause division. Moyle successfully sued the board of directors for libel, collecting $15,000 plus court costs. See Penton, pp. 80–83 and Wills, pp. 202–205.
216.^ Penton 1997, pp. 72,73: "Although Jehovah's Witnesses have done everything possible to hide accounts of the judge's drinking habits, they are simply too notorious to be denied. Former workers at the Watch Tower's New York headquarters recount tales of his inebriation and drunken stupors. Others tell stories of how difficult it sometimes was to get him to the podium to give talks at conventions because of his drunkenness. In San Diego, California, where he spent his winters from 1930 until his death, an elderly lady still speaks of how she sold him great quantities of liquor when he came to purchase medicines in her husband's drugstore."
217.^ a b Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society 1993, p. 89
218.^ Rogerson, Alan (1969). Millions Now Living Will Never Die: A Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Constable & Co, London. p. 64. ISBN 094559406 Check |isbn= value (help).
219.^ Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, p. 90
220.^ "Witnesses Ask Right To Bury Leader", The Evening Independent (St Petersburg, Florida), January 26, 1942: 18
221.^ Consolation, May 27, 1942.
222.^ Consolation, May 27, 1942
223.^ Penton 1997, p. 74
224.^ "San Diego officials line up against New Earth's princes", Consolation, May 27, 1942, pp. 6,9
225.^ "No Will Left By Rutherford, Says Secretary", San Diego Union, February 18, 1942
226.^ Beth Shan—The Watchtower's "House of Security"
227.^ Beth Shan and the Return of the Princes
228.^ Leonard & Marjorie Chretien (1988), Witnesses of Jehovah, Harvest House, p. 49, ISBN 0-89081-587-9
229.^ San Diego Reader, June 28, 2008
230.^ Mallios et al. (2007), Cemeteries of San Diego, Arcadia Publishing, p. 112, ISBN 978-0-7385-4714-5
231.^ "Buried", Time, May 4, 1942
232.^ "Announcements", The Watchtower, October 1, 1966, p 608
233.^ "San Diego's Officials Line Up Against Earth's New Princes", Consolation (Watchtower), May 27, 1942: 9, 14–16
234.^ Van Amburgh, W. E. (2005), The way to paradise, An enlarged replica of the International Bible Students Association's original 1924 book, Lulu.com, pp. 45, 46, ISBN 1-4116-5971-6, retrieved July 12, 2009
Bibliography[edit]
Beckford, James A. (1975). The Trumpet of Prophecy: A Sociological Study of Jehovah's Witnesses. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16310-7.
Johnson, Paul S.L. (November 1, 1917), Harvest Siftings Reviewed, retrieved July 21, 2009
Macmillan, A.H. (1957), Faith on the March, Prentice-Hall
Penton, James M. (1997), Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses (2nd ed.), University of Toronto Press, ISBN 0-8020-7973-3
Pierson et al, A.N. (September 1, 1917), Light After Darkness, retrieved July 21, 2009
Rogerson, Alan (1969), Millions Now Living Will Never Die, Constable, London, ISBN 0-09-455940-6
Rutherford, J.F. (August 1, 1917), Harvest Siftings, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, retrieved July 19, 2009
Rutherford, J.F. (October 1, 1917), Harvest Siftings, Part II, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society, retrieved July 19, 2009
Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society (1975), 1975 Yearbook, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society
Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society (1959), Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society
Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society (1993), Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society
Wills, Tony (2006), A People For His Name, Lulu Enterprises, ISBN 978-1-4303-0100-4
External links[edit]
 Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Joseph Franklin Rutherford
Rutherford and associates 1919 Application for Executive Clemency
Original schism documents 1917 to 1929
Online collection of Rutherford's writings
Works by Joseph Franklin Rutherford at Project Gutenberg
News clippings relating to Judge Rutherford
News clippings from Rutherford's "Millions Now Living Will Never Die" campaign
Preceded by
Charles Taze Russell President of Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society
 January 6, 1917 – January 8, 1942 Succeeded by
Nathan H. Knorr

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Kingdom Hall

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This article is about the place of worship. For the Van Morrison song, see Wavelength (album).
Part of a series on
Jehovah's Witnesses

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A Kingdom Hall is a place of worship used by Jehovah's Witnesses. The term was first suggested in 1935 by Joseph Franklin Rutherford, then president of the Watch Tower Society, for a building in Hawaii.[1] Rutherford's reasoning was that these buildings would be used for preaching the "good news of the Kingdom."[2] Jehovah's Witnesses use Kingdom Halls for the majority of their worship and Bible instruction.
Witnesses prefer the term "Kingdom Hall" over "church", noting that the term often translated "church" in the Bible refers to the congregation of people rather than a structure.[3]

Contents
  [hide] 1 Location and presentation
2 Uses 2.1 Meetings for worship 2.1.1 Schools
2.2 Weddings
2.3 Funerals
2.4 Disaster relief
3 Construction 3.1 Regional Building Committee
3.2 Funding
4 Maintenance
5 Gallery
6 References
7 External links

Location and presentation[edit source]

 

 A Kingdom Hall in Biddulph, United Kingdom
Kingdom Halls are typically modest, functional structures with practicality in mind.[4] As Witnesses do not use religious symbols, such are not displayed on or in Kingdom Halls. An annual yeartext, or "theme scripture", which is the same for all congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses worldwide, is prominently displayed in each Kingdom Hall.[5] This text can be displayed in several languages if the Hall is used by foreign language congregations.[6] A Kingdom Hall typically has a library, contribution boxes,[7] and a literature counter, where publications are displayed, stored and dispensed.[8]
Some Kingdom Halls have multiple auditoriums to allow more than one congregation to simultaneously conduct meetings. Where there is more than one auditorium, each auditorium or the entire structure may both be referred to as "a Kingdom Hall". Larger Assembly Halls or Convention Centers of Jehovah's Witnesses, or any rented arena or stadium used for larger gatherings of Jehovah's Witnesses are also regarded 'as a large Kingdom Hall'; undignified behavior is considered inappropriate during their religious events, even if the facility is an entertainment venue.[9]

Uses[edit source]

 

 Worship at a Kingdom Hall in Portugal
Meetings for worship[edit source]
Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses practices#Worship
Congregations typically meet in their Kingdom Halls two days each week for meetings for worship.[10] Meetings usually open and close with song and prayer. Meetings held in the Kingdom Hall include Bible readings, public talks on matters such as the Bible, family life, Christian qualities[11] and prophecy, as well as discussion of specially prepared study articles in The Watchtower magazine and other publications of Jehovah's Witnesses.[12][13][14][15] Witnesses also meet in Kingdom Halls for preparation and prayer before engaging in their door-to-door ministry.
Schools[edit source]

 

 Worship at a Kingdom Hall in Tilburg, Netherlands
Among its meetings for worship, each congregation conducts a weekly Theocratic Ministry School with a common global curriculum[16] (exceptions are made for the availability of study materials). Kingdom Halls may also be used for any of several occasionally scheduled schools, such as sign- or foreign-language classes.[17] Kingdom Halls may also be used for schools especially developed for particular ranks, such as the Pioneer Service School for full-time preachers, and the Kingdom Ministry School for elders and ministerial servants.[18]
In areas where the literacy rate is low, congregations may also arrange to use Kingdom Halls to conduct literacy or reading classes, which non-Witnesses may also attend.[19]
See also: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses#Students
Weddings[edit source]
Kingdom Halls may be used for wedding ceremonies of Witness-baptized couples, or of an unbaptized bride and groom simultaneously approaching baptism as Jehovah's Witnesses. A couple sends a request in writing to the congregation's "service committee", which assesses whether the couple is "in good standing, living in harmony with Bible principles and Jehovah’s righteous standards" and that they also approve of the members of the couple's wedding party (that is, groomsmen and bridesmaids).[20]
Jehovah's Witnesses attach no special significance to a Kingdom Hall wedding over a secular service, and Witness couples may choose to be married elsewhere for personal or practical reasons. Kingdom Halls are not used for wedding receptions or other social events.[21][22]
Funerals[edit source]
Funeral services may be held in a Kingdom Hall if the body of elders considers that "the deceased had a clean reputation and was a member of the congregation or the minor child of a member".[23] The family of the deceased may ask any respected male member of the congregation to conduct the service, which involves a simple Bible-based discourse.[24] Depending on family preference and local custom, a Kingdom Hall funeral may or may not have the casketed deceased present.[23][25]
Disaster relief[edit source]
Disaster relief efforts of Jehovah's Witnesses are typically channeled through permanent local Disaster Relief Committees[26] under the various branch offices, and are staged at Kingdom Halls and Assembly Halls as close as practical to the disaster area. Major disaster relief efforts include:
War: During the Rwandan Genocide in 1994, a Kingdom Hall property in Goma (then Zaire, now Democratic Republic of the Congo) housed 1600 Witness and non-Witness refugees. In July 1994, relief workers set up a 60-bed relief hospital at the Kingdom Hall, as well as a water treatment system.[27]
Earthquake: Following the Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995, six Kingdom Halls in Kobe, Japan were used as relief centers and supply depots.[28][29][30]
Following the 2010 Haiti earthquake, an Assembly Hall and three Kingdom Halls in Haiti were staffed and equipped as temporary clinics and medical centers.[31][32]Storm: In the ten months following Tropical Storm Allison in 2001, seven Kingdom Halls were used as relief centers to dispatch volunteer crews and to store tools and materials while they organized 11,700 volunteers to repair or rebuild 723 homes.[33]
For over two years after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in 2005, Kingdom Halls were used as relief centers, warehouses, and fuel depots. Nearly 17,000 Witness volunteers repaired more than 5,600 homes and 90 Kingdom Halls during their extended relief effort in the United States' Gulf Coast region.[34]Volcano: On January 18, 2002, the day after the eruption of Mount Nyiragongo, six Kingdom Halls in the vicinity received three tons of basic necessities and housed 1800 refugees. One week later, these relief centers were providing daily rations to 5000 people.[35]
Construction[edit source]
The construction crews of Kingdom Halls and larger Assembly Halls consist of volunteering Jehovah's Witnesses,[36][37] sometimes from other countries, who have been pre-approved for work on construction sites.
In many countries, a number of standard designs of construction are used that can be built in just a few days.[38][39] The act of constructing a Kingdom Hall in this manner is called a quick-build, although typically the preparation work involving the structural foundation and surrounding surface may take several weeks prior to the scheduled build. For various reasons, not all Kingdom Halls are constructed as quick-builds or using the standard designs. There is however, a noticeably dominant architectural style of the Kingdom Hall which is often used based on standardized design concepts and models, depending on needs.
A Kingdom Hall or Assembly Hall may be created by renovating an existing structure, such as a theater or non-Witness house of worship.[40][41] In areas of repeated or reputed vandalism, particularly in cities, some Kingdom Hall are built without windows to reduce the risk of property damage.[42]
Regional Building Committee[edit source]
Jehovah's Witnesses' branch offices appoint local Regional Building Committees (RBC) to oversee the construction and maintenance of their places of worship. The objective of such committees, which usually consist of five to seven persons, often with experience in the construction trades, is to coordinate the efforts of those involved so as to provide attractive and functional facilities that are financially viable.
RBCs cooperate with local congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses seeking to build or renovate a place of worship, under the direction of the local branch office. Committees help in assessing the suitability of a possible construction site, purchasing the land and materials and coordinating the efforts of volunteers from the wider area. The work of the Regional Building Committees has made it possible for Jehovah's Witnesses to build or renovate Kingdom Halls in a very short time, sometimes as little as two days, although typically the preparation work involving the structural foundation and surrounding surface may take several weeks prior to the scheduled build. Members of a Regional Building Committee work voluntarily and receive no remuneration for their work.
Funding[edit source]
In 1983, an arrangement was instituted whereby Kingdom Halls are financed by loans from the Watch Tower Society. In addition to contribution boxes for local congregation expenses and "the worldwide work", each congregation has a contribution box specifically for voluntary donations toward Kingdom Hall construction.[43][44] These donations are pooled by the Watch Tower Society into the Society Kingdom Hall Fund, which is used for financing the construction of Kingdom Halls worldwide, particularly in developing lands.[45][46] When a congregation receives local approval to build a new Kingdom Hall, the congregation may apply for a loan from the Society Kingdom Hall Fund.[47] The congregation repays the loan to the Watch Tower Society, in addition to its continued contributions to the Kingdom Hall Fund. Interest was charged on the loans until September 2008.[48][49][50]
Maintenance[edit source]
Routine maintenance of Kingdom Halls is performed by the members of the congregations that use them, typically according to a scheduled checklist.[51] The "Kingdom Hall operating committee" oversees maintenance of the building; at least one elder or ministerial servant from each congregation is selected to be part of the operating committee.[52] Kingdom Hall maintenance costs are covered by donations to a local fund.[53]
Gallery[edit source]
Kingdom Halls at various locations



Hamburg, Germany
 


Kerala, India
 


Napier, New Zealand
 


Toronto, Canada
 


Vårgårda, Sweden
 


Târgovişte, Romania
 


West Sussex, United Kingdom
 


Omagh, United Kingdom
 


Harbutowice, Poland

References[edit source]
1.^ Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom chap. 20 p. 319, 721
2.^ Jehovah's Witnesses – Proclaimers of God's Kingdom chap. 20 p. 319 Building Together on a Global Scale
3.^ "Should We Go to Christian Meetings?", Awake!, March 8, 2001, page 12
4.^ Organized to Do Jehovah's Will p.120-123 (Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 2005)
5.^ Texas Monthly magazine, July 1980, page 136,138, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, "A Witness house of worship is called a Kingdom Hall. ...Appropriate to the movement's rejection of pomp and display, the [particular Hall visited by the writer], shared with two other congregations, resembled the meeting room of a budget motel, complete with rows of stackable chairs. The lone feature that marked it as a room devoted to religion was a sign, affixed to a plain wooden canopy over the speaker's stand, that bore the entreaty, "And now, Jehovah . . . grant your slaves to keep speaking your word with all boldness." The congregation of approximately 75 included admirably equal portions of blacks, whites, and Mexican Americans, a not uncommon manifestation of ethnic ecumenicity in Witness circles."
6.^ "Question Box", Our Kingdom Ministry, December 1976, page 4, "It is recommended that the yeartext be displayed in the Kingdom Hall in countries where this can be done without difficulties resulting. ...Often it is best to display the yeartext at the front or side of the hall so it can be seen easily."
7.^ “To the House of Jehovah Let Us Go”, Our Kingdom Ministry, April 1993, page 4
8.^ "Bible-based Society of Kingdom Witnesses", The Watchtower, October 15, 1962, page 631
9.^ "Maintain Fine Conduct That Glorifies God", Our Kingdom Ministry, May 2000, page 6
10.^ Organized to Do Jehovah’s Will, ©2005 Watch Tower, page 138
11.^ "Mother of Jackson Family Tells All" by Katherine Jackson, Ebony magazine, October 1990, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 66, "I also wish that my children will draw closer to Jehovah. I'm not worried about Rebbie...But Randy and Janet attend Kingdom Hall only occasionally, and Jermaine, Jackie, Tito, and LaToya not at all"
12.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses", World Religions in America: An Introduction by Jacob Neusner, ©2003, Westminster John Knox Press, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 197
13.^ Organized to Accomplish Our Ministry, ©1983,1989 Watch Tower, page 131
14.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses", Britannica Encyclopedia of World Religions by Wendy Doniger (editor), ©2006, in association with Merriam-Webster, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 563
15.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses", World Religions: An Introduction for Students by Jeaneane D. Fowler, ©1997, Sussex Academic Press, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 122
16.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses", Encyclopedia of Millennialism and Millennial Movements by Richard Allen Landes, Berkshire Reference Works (Firm), ©2000, Routledge, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 203, "One can visit a "Kingdom Hall" (a technical term for the building at which Witness meetings are held) in Australia, Japan, Zambia, or North Carolina with the realistic expectation that congregational meetings will exhibit a high degree of uniformity in content and procedure."
17.^ "Highlights of the Past Year", 2007 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, pages 6, 15-18
18.^ "Imitate the Greatest Missionary", The Watchtower, February 15, 2008, page 18
19.^ 1986 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 226.
20.^ "Question Box", Our Kingdom Ministry, November 2008, page 3
21.^ "Marriage Ceremony and Requirements", The Watchtower, September 15, 1956, page 571
22.^ How to Be a Perfect Stranger: The Essential Religious Etiquette Handbook by Stuart M. Matlins, Arthur J. Magida (editors), ©2004, Skylight Paths Publishing, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 128-129, "Marriage Ceremony Jehovah's Witnesses view marriage as a sacred vow made before God. ...The marriage ceremony, which may last about 30 minutes, is a ceremony in itself. ...Appropriate Attire Men" A jacket and tie. No head covering is required. Women: A dress or a skirt and blouse. Dress "modestly" and "sensibly". Hems need not reach below the knees nor must clothing cover the arms. Open-toed shoes and modest jewelry are permissible. No head covering is required. There are no rules regarding colors of clothing. ...After the Ceremony Is there usually a reception after the ceremony? Yes. It may be held in homes or a catering hall. It is never held in the Kingdom Hall where the wedding took place."
23.^ a b "Question Box", Our Kingdom Ministry, March 1997, page 7
24.^ "Is Your Course of Life Death-Oriented?", The Watchtower, June 1, 1978, page 7
25.^ How to Be a Perfect Stranger: The Essential Religious Etiquette Handbook by Stuart M. Matlins, Arthur J. Magida (editors), ©2004, Skylight Paths Publishing, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 129, "Funerals and Mourning Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the dead are "conscious of nothing at all" and are asleep in the grave awaiting resurrection to life. ...The funeral service, which is a ceremony in itself, may last about 15 to 30 minutes. ...Where will the ceremony take place? Either at a Kingdom Hall or in a funeral home. ...Will there be an open casket? Possibly. This depends on the preference of the immediate family."
26.^ "Volunteers continue Katrina disaster relief work" by David J. Bush, Salisbury Post, September 1, 2007, page F0
27.^ "Caring for Victims of Rwanda’s Tragedy", Awake!, December 22, 1994, page 15
28.^ "Volunteers at Work", Awake!, July 22, 2001, page 8
29.^ "Love Toward Those ‘Related in the Faith’", The Watchtower, June 15, 1999, page 8
30.^ "Japan", 1998 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, page 143
31.^ "Witnesses’ relief efforts in Haiti continue", Jehovah's Witnesses Official Media Web Site, January 28, 2010, As Retrieved 2010-02-22
32.^ "A Doctor Heads Home to Haiti" by Lionel J. Malebranche, MD, Annals of Internal Medicine, February 18, 2010
33.^ "Love in Action—A Marathon Relief Effort", Awake!, November 22, 2002, page 22
34.^ "A Love More Powerful Than a Hurricane!", Awake!, August 2008, page 16
35.^ "How We Escaped a Terrifying Lava Flow!", Awake!, November 8, 2002, pages 24-25
36.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses", The Encyclopedia of Louisville by John E. Kleber, ©2000, University Press of Kentucky, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 444, "Jehovah's Witnesses are well known in the Greater Louisville area, having been a part of "Kentucky sod" since the late 1800s. ...From 1947 to 1970 ten more Kingdom Halls were constructed in Louisville, all by volunteer labor."
37.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses", World Religions 101: An Overview for Teens by Margaret O. Hyde, Emily G. Hyde, ©2008, Twenty-First Century Books, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 91-92
38.^ "Jehovah's Witnesses", Religion in the contemporary world: a sociological introduction by Alan E. Aldridge, ©2000, Polity Press, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 116-117, "Witnesses are extremely well organized. ...One particular way in which the [Watch Tower] society mobilizes its members is to build their places for worship and assembly, the Kingdom Halls. A 'rapid-building crew' of Witness volunteers can erect a functional but well-built Kingdom Hall in a weekend."
39.^ Holbrook by Holbrook Historical Society, ©2004, Arcadia Publishing, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 63, "The Kingdom Hall. Shown here is the Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses on North Franklin Street. This hall was built by the membership in one weekend."
40.^ New York: The Movie Lover's Guide : The Ultimate Insider Tour of Movie New York by Richard Alleman, ©2005, Broadway, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 416, "Albemarle Theater, 973 Flatbush Avenue. Just like the old Stanley Theater in Jersey City, Brooklyn's 2,700-seat Albemarle movie palace later served as a Kingdom Hall for the Jehovah's Witnesses."
41.^ From Abyssinian to Zion: A Guide to Manhattan's Houses of Worship by David W. Dunlap, ©2004, Columbia University Press, As Retrieved 2009-08-18, page 117, "The remarkable Kingdom Hall at 609 West 161st Street was formerly the Hebrew Tabernacle of Washington Heights, by George and Edward Blum and Ludwig Hanauer, completed in 1925."
42.^ "How Kingdom Halls Are Built", Awake!, August 22, 1972, page 23
43.^ "How Is It All Financed?", Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom, pages 344-345
44.^ "Announcements", Our Kingdom Ministry, June 1991, page 3
45.^ "True Worship Is Expanding in Eastern Europe". Our Kingdom Ministry: 3–4. September 1999.
46.^ "International Kingdom Hall Building in Some European Lands", Our Kingdom Ministry, May 2003, page 3
47.^ "A New Program for Kingdom Hall Construction". Our Kingdom Ministry: 3. September 1983.
48.^ Letter to all Congregations, June 4, 2008
49.^ "Continued Expansion Increases Need for Kingdom Halls". Our Kingdom Ministry: 3. December 1993.
50.^ Our Kingdom Ministry: 4. April 1985. "These loans are repaid to the Society Kingdom Hall Fund with interest at the rate of 6 percent."
51.^ For example, Our Kingdom Ministry, March 2003, included a "Safety Checklist" on page 4, and a checklist for "Care of Building and Property" on page 5.
52.^ "Let Us Keep Our Place of Worship in Good Repair", Our Kingdom Ministry, August 2003, page 3-4
53.^ "The Giver of “Every Good Gift”", The Watchtower, December 1, 1993, page 29
External links[edit source]
Official Kingdom Hall finder
Jehovah's Witnesses' Official Website : What is a Kingdom Hall?
 

Categories: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses
Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses
Types of Christian organization

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